GIFT  OF 


~r 


THK 


GRAPE  CULTURIST 


A  TREATISE  ON  THE 


CULTIVATION  OF  THE  NATIVE  GRAPE 


s. 

AUTHOR   OF    THE  "SMALL    FRUIT   CULTURIST,"  "PROPAGATION  OF 
PLANTS,"  "PRACTICAL   FORESTRY,"  ETC.,  ETC. 


HEW,  REVISED  AND   ENLARGED  EDITIOH 


NEW  YORK 
GRANGE  JUDD   COMPANY 

1908 

,--LLHL 


'.  /      COPYRIGHT,  1894 
By  ORANGE  JUDD  COMPANY 


r- 


PREFACE 


It  is  now  thirty  years  since  the  first  edition  of  this 
work  was  written  and  offered  to  the  public,  with  many 
misgivings  on  the  part  of  the  author  in  regard  to  its  recep- 
tion and  fate.  But  much  to  his  surprise  as  well  as  grat- 
ification, it  was  cordially  received,  and  the  demand  for 
frequent  and  large  editions  has  continued  down  to  the 
present  time. 

Now  my  publishers  inform  me  that  the  original 
plates  are  worn  out,  by  long  and  continued  use,  and  that 
the  book  must  be  reset  or  relegated  to  that  bourn,  known 
to  the  trade  as  "out  of  print,"  and  where  so  many  of 
my  worthy  contemporaries  have  found  a  resting  place 
during  the  past  three  decades  of  grape  culture. 

Many  changes  have  occurred  in  this  branch  of  hor- 
ticulture during  recent  years,  and  valuable  discoveries 
made  in  the  way  of  materials  and  mode  of  applying  to 
prevent  the  ravages  of  noxious  insects  and  fungus  dis- 
eases, all  contributing  more  or  less  to  advance  the  grape 
industry,  which  has  now  become  one  of  great  importance 
to  the  whole  country.  An  immense  number  of  new 
varieties  have  been  produced,  and  yet  some  of  those  that 
were  popular  thirty-five  years  ago,  still  hold  their  own, 
and  even  lead  in  the  markets  of  all  our  large  viflages  and 
cities,  and  this,  in  my  opinion,  is  a  better  test  of  their 
intrinsic  value  than  all  the  encomiums  bestowed  upon 
them  from  other  sources.  Some  of  my  earlier  critics 
accused  me  of  over-praising  these  varieties  and  neglecting 
those  which  they  thought  were  more  deserving  of  com- 


IV  THE   GRAPE   CCLTUBIST. 

mendation  ;  but  all  this  has  become  history  and  no  longer 
worthy  of  serious  consideration. 

My  aim  in  writing  this  work  was  to  make  it  an  ele- 
mentary text-book  for  the  novice  in  grape  culture,  and 
not  a  scientific  treatise — explaining  the  natural  laws  as  I 
understand  them  —  which  govern  the  development  and 
fruiting  of  the  vine,  believing  that  when  the  vineyardist 
comprehends  these  he  may  the  more  readily  vary  his 
operations,  and  yet  do  no  violence  to  the  fundamental 
principles  of  plant  growth.  To  more  fully  carry  out  this 
idea,  the  "arm  and  spur  system"  of  pruning  and  train- 
ing was  selected  for  illustrations,  and  these  are  retained, 
because  it  is  the  culmination  and  perfection  of  all  sys- 
tems, and  has  been  attained  through  centuries  of  experi- 
ence and  numberless  experiments  in  the  Old  World,  and 
especially  in  France,  where  grape  culture  has  long  been 
regarded  as  one  of  the  most  important  of  her  national 
industries. 

It  must  be  admitted,  however,  to  fully  carry  out  this 
system  of  pruning  and  training,  a  much  greater  amount 
of  labor  is  required  than  in  many  others  in  vogue,  but 
this  cannot  be  urged  as  a  fault  of  the  system,  but  only 
an  objection  where  labor  is  scarce  and  dear,  and  grapes 
as  cheap  as  they  have  been  with  us  of  late  years.  But  if 
the  inexperienced  vineyardist,  and  even  those  somewhat 
advanced,  will  study  the  principles  involved  in  following 
this  system  to  completion  they  will  be  all  the  better  pre- 
pared for  adopting  any  of  the  more  simple  forms  of  train- 
ing given  in  the  succeeding  chapters. 

The  cultivation  of  our  native  grapes  appears  to  have 
had  its  inception  with  a  few  amateurs  like  Tench  Coxe 
of  Philadelphia,  and  John  Adlum  of  Washington,  early 
in  the  present  century,  and  from  these  localities,  instead 
of  extending  southward,  as  might  reasonably  have  been 
expected,  it  spread  northward,  and  as  an  industry  grape 
culture  has  reached  its  highest  development  on  the  banks 


PBEFACE. 

of  our  larger  rivers,  smaller  inland  lakes,  and  on  the  south 
shores  of  the  greater  ones  on  our  northern  border.  From 
there  it  has  extended  westward  to  the  great  plains  beyond 
the  Mississippi.  It  is  scarcely  probable,  however,  that 
the  mild  salubrious  climate  of  the  elevated  regions  of  the 
Middle  and  Southern  States  are  to  remain  almost  unap- 
propriated by  vineyardists,  and  it  is  not  improbable  that 
in  the  near  future  the  center  of  this  great  industry  may 
be  found  several  degrees  south  of  its  present  locality. 

Thirty  years  ago  California  was  an  unknown  competi- 
tor in  the  fruit  markets  of  the  Atlantic  States,  but  the 
completion  of  the  then  projected  railroads  across  the  con- 
tinent has  opened  our  doors  to  her  products,  and  the 
mild  climate  of  the  State  is  so  well  adapted  to  the  culti- 
vation of  the  exotic  grape  in  all  its  varieties,  as  well  as 
other  half-hardy  fruits,  that  in  her  horticulture  she  is  as 
much  a  foreign  land  as  Spain,  Southern  Italy,  and  other 
semi-tropical  countries  of  Europe.  For  this  reason  I  do 
not  refer  to  any  of  the  grapes  cultivated  in  that  part  of 
the  country.  In  the  classification  of  the  American 
species  of  the  grape  the  reader  will  notice  that  there  has 
been  a  wide  departure  from  the  one  given  in  the  first 
edition  of  this  work,  and  while  botanical  nomenclature 
and  determination  depends  so  largely  upon  the  individual 
opinions  of  botanists,  that  there  is  little  probability  that 
they  will  ever  reach  an  unquestioned  conclusion,  yet  we 
may  hope  that  each  succeeding  generation  will  strive  to 
improve  upon  the  labors  of  its  immediate  predecessor. 

ANDREW  S.  FULLER, 

Ridgewood,  N.  J.,  1894. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  I. 
BOTANICAL  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  THE  GRAPE 3 

CHAPTER  II. 
GROWING  FROM  SEED 15 

CHAPTER  III. 
PROPAGATION  BY  SINGLE  BUDS 20 

CHAPTER  IV. 

CUTTINGS  OF  UNRIPE  WOOD 36 

CHAPTER  V. 
PROPAGATION  HOUSE 40 

CHAPTER  VI. 
CUTTINGS  IN  OPEN  AIR 48 

CHAPTER  VIL 
LAYERING  THE  VINE 58 

CHAPTER  VIII. 
GRAFTING  THE  GRAPE 63 

CHAPTER  IX. 
HYBRIDIZING  AND  CROSSING 74 

CHAPTER  X. 
TRANSPLANTING 81 

CHAPTER  XI. 
SOIL  AND  SITUATION 89 

CHAPTER  XII. 
STEM  APPENDAGES 102 

CHAPTER  XIII. 
PLANTING  THK  VINE HA 

CHAPTER  XTV. 
GRAPE  TRELLISES 120 

CHAPTER  XV. 
TIME  TO  PRUNE  VINES 123 

CHAPTER  XVL 
GARDEN  CULTURB ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••«•••••••••••••••  1£6 


Till  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  XVII. 
VARIOUS  SYSTEMS  OP  PRUNING  AND  TRAINING 17fi 

CHAPTER  XVIII. 
MISCELLANEOUS 194 

CHAPTER  XIX. 
INSECT  ENEMIES  OF   THE  GRAPE 203 

CHAPTER  XX. 
FUNGUS  DISEASES 231 

CHAPTER  XXI. 
DESCRIPTION  OF  VARIETIES 239 

CHAPTER  XXII. 

NEW  OR  LITTLE  KNOWN  VARIETIES 264 

CHAPTER  XXIH. 
OLD,  OBSOLETE  AND  INFERIOR  VARIETIES 268 


INTRODUCTION 


To  even  attempt  to  write  the  history  of  the  grape, 
one  would  need  go  back  to  the  prehistoric  races  of  the 
Eastern  world,  who  have  only  left  us  silent  relics  of 
their  handiwork,  from  which  we  may  gather  a  misty 
idea  of  their  domestic  life  and  intelligence.  The  earliest 
rays  of  light  which  have  come  down  to  us,  on  this  sub- 
ject, are  the  ancient  traditions,  and  these  only  take  us 
back  to  the  time  when  planting  vineyards  and  grape  cul- 
ture had  already  become  an  important  industry.  But 
since  those  days  the  vine  has  been  a  constant  attendant 
of  civilization,  following  it  from  country  to  country, 
and  progressing  with  it;  yet  the  same  species  of  the 
grape  that  thrives  so  well  over  a  great  portion  of  the 
Eastern  Hemisphere  has,  with  few  exceptions,  like  that 
of  California,  entirely  failed  in  this  country.  While  we 
may  regret  that  the  exotic  grape,  in  its  many  varieties, 
is  not  adapted  to  the  climate  of  the  Eastern  States,  yet 
we  may  congratulate  ourselves  upon  having  indigenous 
species,  from  which  new  varieties  have  been,  and  are 
still  being,  produced,  which  will  rival,  in  point  of  rich- 
ness and  flavor,  any  of  the  foreign  ones;  and  we  are 
encouraged  to  hope  for  further  improvements  in  the 
near  future. 

The  cultivation  of  the  vine  in  this  country  has  had 
many  obstacles  to  contend  with.  The  earlier  vineyard- 
ists,  who  had  been  accustomed  to  the  improved  grapes 
of  Europe,  could  see  nothing  in  the  inferior  wild  grapes 
of  this  country  to  induce  them  to  attempt  their  cultiva- 

1 


2  THE  GRAPE  CULTURJST. 

tion,  and  for  many  years  all  of  our  vineyards  were 
planted  with  the  foreign  varieties,  which,  of  course, 
failed ;  but  the  experiment  was  often  repeated,  but  with 
no  better  results.  Even  so  late  as  thirty  years  ago,  and 
while  writing  the  first  edition  of  this  work,  a  German 
acquaintance  was  planting  fifty  acres  with  foreign  varie- 
ties on  Long  Island,  insisting  that  all  previous  failures 
with  these  vines  was  due  to  want  of  proper  pruning  and 
training,  and  not,  as  claimed,  to  an  uncongenial  climate ; 
but  he  had  no  better  success  than  the  hundreds  of  other 
enthusiasts  who  had  previously  entered  the  same  field, 
only  to  retire  with  a  certain  amount  of  dear-bought 
experience.  But  after  nearly,  or  quite,  two  centuries  of 
such  unsuccessful  attempts  to  grow  the  European  varie- 
ties of  the  grape  in  open  culture  in  this  country  east  of 
the  Kocky  Mountains,  vineyardists  turned  their  atten- 
tion to  the  improvement  of  our  native  species,  and  the 
results  are  to  be  seen  in  the  many  excellent  varieties 
now  in  cultivation.  It  is  only  since  the  foreign  varie- 
ties have  been  discarded  for  the  hitherto  neglected  native 
sorts,  that  grape  culture  in  the  East  has  become  an 
important  and  established  branch  of  American  industry. 


CHAPTER  L 

BOTA1HCAL  CHAKACTEEISTICS  OP  THB  GRAPE. 

The  opinions  of  botanists  differ  widely  in  regard  to 
the  number  of  species  of  the  grape  indigenous  to  North 
America,  and  this  is  not  at  all  strange,  with  a  plant  so 
disposed  to  run  into  varieties.  In  the  earlier  works  of 
the  late  Professor  Asa  Gray, — and  whose  classification 
was  followed  in  the  first  edition  of  the  Grape  Culturist, 
— he  recognized  only  four  species  as  inhabiting  this 
country  east  of  the  Mississippi  valley,  and  this  limitation 
prompted  me  to  remark,  at  that  time,  "that  there  are 
several  native  species  which  are  found  in  certain  sections 
of  the  country  which  are  very  puzzling,  and  one  is  at  a 
loss  as  to  which  of  the  admitted  species  they  should  be 
referred."  These  varieties  (or  species),  though  growing 
indiscriminately  with  others,  about  which  there  is  no 
doubt,  seem  to  preserve  their  identity,  and  it  is  very 
difficult  to  decide  whether  to  call  them  distinct  species 
or  marked  varieties  of  the  species  enumerated  by  Dr. 
Gray.  Practically  it  may  be  of  little  consequence  what 
view  is  taken  of  these  unusual  forms,  for  the  vineyardist 
is  mainly  interested  in  them  as  varieties,  and  it  is  of  no 
particular  moment  to  him  whether  we  have  one  hundred, 
or  only  one  native  species,  so  long  as  there  is  a  suffi- 
cient number  to  suit  all  soils  and  climates.  But  later, 
Dr.  Gray  and  his  eminent  colleagues  revised  the  list  of 
native  species  of  the  grape,  admitting  that  there  were 
seven  or  eight  indigenous  species  in  the  Eastern  States, 
and  two  or  more  in  the  Pacific  coast  regions,  only  four 
of  which,  however,  have  given  rise  to  valuable  or  prom- 

8 


^  ;«.  •.  /  :  i  .THE  GRAPE  CULTURIST. 


This  statement,  in  regard  to 

•"Tou'f* Species );'©Hly*  fielding  promising  cultivated  varie- 
ties, must  rest  upon  individual  opinions  as  to  the  origin 
or  descent  of  some  of  the  recently  produced  varieties, 
but  as  it  is  of  no  great  importance,  we  may  leave  it  for 
future  investigators  to  determine. 

In  giving  a  synopsis  of  the  genera  and  classification 
of  the  grapes  of  the  United  States,  I  shall  avail  myself 
of  a  monograph  prepared  for  the  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  by  T.  V.  Munson,  who  has  gath- 
ered together  a  mass  of  material  heretofore  scattered 
through  the  works  of  various  botanists,  and  arranged  it 
in  a  convenient  order  for  study.  This  grouping  of  the 
species,  or  varieties,  is  probably  as  near  correct  as  the 
present  state  of  botanical  investigation  will  permit,  but 
I  shall  only  give  an  epitome  of  his  monograph,  using 
such  parts  as  appear  to  be  of  the  most  value  and  practi- 
cal importance  to  the  vineyardist. 

Genus  VITIS. — (Tournefort,  Linnaeus  in  part)  Grape. 

Calyx  very  short,  or  small ;  the  border  often  obso- 
lete, and  the  tube  filled  with  the  fleshy  disk,  which  bears 
four  or  five  thick  caducous  petals  (Fig.  1  A  greatly 
enlarged),  cohering  at  the  top,  while  they  sepa- 
rate at  the  base,  the  corolla  usually  falling  off 
without  expanding ;  five  thick  glands,  or  lobes, 
of  the  disk,  alternating  with  the  stamens  be- 
tween them  and  the  base  of  the  ovary ;  flowers 
FIG.  i.  in  a  compound  thyrsus,  dioecious-polygamous  in 
all  the  American  species,  mostly  exhaling  a  fragrance 
like  that  of  mignonette.  Tendrils  and  flower-clusters 
opposite  the  leaves,  the  former  almost  always  divided,  or 
forked.  Leaves  simple,  rounded  and  heart-shaped,  often 
variously  lobed. 


BOTANICAL   CHARACTERISTICS.  5 

GROUP  1.     RIPARLE.     (River  Grape.) 

Vine  shrubby  or  climbing,  moderately  bark-shedding 
in  fibrous  plates  ;  young  canes  cylindrical,  or  but  slightly 
angled  ;  smooth  or  tomentose  ;  tendrils  rather  short  and 
weak ;  leaves  small  to  medium,  broadly  heart-shaped ; 
clusters  small,  generally  compact  shouldered;  fruit- 
stalk  very  short  and  thick;  berries  small  to  medium, 
with  bloom  vinous  and  without  offensive  odor. 

Vitis   rupestris,  Scheele,  Southwestern   Texas,  Ozark-Ridge;   Central 

Tennessee. 
Vitis  riparia,  Michaux,  all  Northern  States  and  Canada  east  of  Rocky 

Mountains. 

Vitis  Solonis,  Hort.  Berol.,  Northwestern  Texas  and  New  Mexico. 
Vitis  Doaniana,  Munson,  Northwestern  Texas  and  New  Mexico. 

GROUP  2.     WESTERN  SPECIES. 

Vine  shrubby,  as  in  Vitis  Arizonica,  or  climbing 
vigorously,  as  in  F.  Californica.  Young  canes  nearly 
cylindrical,  tomentose,  buds  small  to  medium  and  whit- 
ish tomentose  in  expanding.  Leaves  long,  cordate,  or 
heart-shaped,  small  to  medium  silky  tomentose  to  glab- 
rous ;  clusters  small  to  medium,  mostly  compact.  Ber- 
ries small  black,  with  thin  bloom,  vinous,  and  hanging 
a  long  time  to  the  vine.  The  foliage  said  to  be  very 
sensitive  to  mildew,  and  the  fruit  to  rot.  The  F.  Cal- 
ifornica is  the  tenderest  of  all  our  native  species,  most 
abundant  in  light  soils  along  streams. 

Vitis  Arizonica,  Engelmann,  var.  glabra,  Munson,  Western  Texas,  New 

Mexico,  Arizona,  and  Chihuahua,  Mexico. 
Fitis  Girdiana,  Munson,  all  California  south  of  Mojave  Desert,  rare 

north  of  that. 
Vitis    Californica,  Bentham,  Central    and  Northern   California,    and 

Southern  Oregon  on  Rogue  River. 

GROUP  3.     CORIACE^E.— (Thick  Leaved.) 

Vine  rather  slender,  climbing,  young  leaves  very 
small  on  end  of  growing  shoots.  Young  annual  canes 
white  or  rusty  tomentose,  except  in  F.  Champini. 
Leaves  medium,  broadly  cordate.  Surface  slightly 


6  THE  GRAPE  CULTUMST. 

rugose,  dark  green,  thick,  leathery.  Young  leaves  at 
first  pale  pinkish  underside,  covered  with  whitish  or 
rusty  tomentose.  Clusters  small,  loose,  simply  divided ; 
berries  medium  to  very  large,  without  bloom;  skin 
thick,  more  or  less  pungent,  but  not  musky. 

Vitis  Champini,  Hanchon,  Southwest  Texas. 

Vitis  candicans,  Engelmann,  east  of  one  hundredth  meridian  in  Texas. 

Vitis  coriacea,  Shuttle  worth,  Central  and  Southern  Florida. 

GKOUP  4.     LABKUSOE.     (Fox  Grape.) 

Vine  strong,  stocky,  climbing  vigorously;  tip  of 
young  shoots  enveloped  in  rapidly  growing  and  unfold- 
ing leaves,  and  usually  of  a  pinkish  color.  Young  canes 
densely  tomentose,  almost  woolly,  cylindrical,  and  as 
they  become  mature  are  covered  with  short  spinous  hairs, 
giving  to  the  dark  brown  striated  bark  a  roughness  read- 
ily recognized  as  a  specific  character.  Leaves  densely 
tomentose  while  young,  becoming  rugose  above  and  rusty 
woolly  beneath ;  broadly  cordate  and  lobed,  the  lobes 
separated  by  deeply  rounded  sinuses ;  clusters  medium 
to  large,  compact  shouldered ;  berries  medium  to  large, 
color  variable,  from  nearly  white  to  black,  covered  with 
bloom ;  tough  pulp,  and  a  strong  musky  or  foxy  odor 
and  taste.  Only  one  species. 

Vitis  labrusca,  Linnaeus,  Atlantic  States  and  Tennessee. 

GKOUP  5.     ^STIVALES.     (Summer  Grape.) 

Vine  strong,  stocky,  climbing;  tips  of  growing 
shoots  sparsely  supplied  with  leaves ;  young  wood  to- 
mentose, or  nearly  smooth  in  some,  while  others  have  a 
spinous  pubescence  around  the  joints ;  tendrils  pale  or 
reddish  brown  ;  young  buds  usually  reddish  or  crimson  ; 
leaves  medium  to  large,  with  loose  cobwebby  hairs 
beneath,  smoothish  when  old,  and  dark  green  above; 
berries  small  to  large,  with  light  bloom,  mostly  astrin- 
gent, but  sometimes  sweet  and  vinous. 


BOTANICAL  CHARACTERISTICS.  7 

Vitis  Uncecutnii,  Buckley.    South  Texas,  var.  glauca,  Munson.    North 

Texas  to  South  Missouri. 
Vitis  bicolor,  Leconte.    Kentucky  to   Michigan,  Wisconsin,  Illinois, 

New  York,  and  southward. 

Vitis  cestivalis,  Michaux.    Tennessee,  Georgia,  Virginia,  and  southward. 
Vitis  Simpsonii,  Munson.    Florida. 

GROUP  6.     CORDIFOLI^E.     (Frost  Grape.) 

Vine  slender,  climbing ;  young  canes  smooth,  cylin- 
drical, except  in  monticola,  thinly  pinkish  pubescent  in 
striate  lines  along  the  obscure  angles,  becoming  pale 
reddish  brown ;  leaves  heart-shape  entire  or  lobed,  blade 
smooth  and  shining  on  both  sides,  except  along  the  mid- 
ribs and  veins ;  clusters  medium  to  large,  loose,  and  sel- 
dom compound ;  berries  small,  black,  shining,  without 
bloom  except  in  V.  monticola. 

Vitis  cordifolia,  Michaux.    Iowa  to  New  York,  south  to  Gulf. 

Vitis  rubra,  Michaux.    (V.  palmata,  Englm.)    Illinois  and  southward. 

Vitis  monticola,  Buckley.    (  V.  Texana,  Munson.)    Southwest  Texas. 

GROUP  7.      CINERASCENTES.      (Winter  Grapes.) 

Vine  slender  at  first,  but  becoming  a  strong  grower 
and  climbing  very  high.  Young  canes  densely  whitish 
or  rusty,  pubescent,  or  woolly  along  the  angles ;  buds 
small,  sub-triangular,  brown,  but  in  expanding  dull 
pink  or  rusty  crimson;  leaves  long,  cordate,  seldom 
lobed,  but  variable  in  the  different  species,  some  with 
upper  side  rugose,  dark,  dull  green,  and  only  pubescent 
or  whitish  woolly  beneath,  the  latter  in  some  of  the 
Southwestern  forms ;  clusters  large  to  very  large,  loose 
or  compact,  compound,  with  long  slender  peduncle ; 
berries  very  small,  with  thin  bloom,  or  shining  black, 
with  a  pure  vinous  taste,  intensely  acid  till  very  ripe,  or 
when  frosted. 

Vitis  Virginiana,  Munson.    Mountain  Valleys  Southwest  Virginia. 

Vitis  B6rlandieri,  Planchon.    ( V.  monticola,  Mil.) 

Vitis  cinerea,  Engelmann.    Texas,  Indian  Territory,  Missouri,  Illinois, 

Tennessee,  var.  Floridana,  Munson,  Florida. 
Vitis  Caribcea,  D.  C.,  Eastern  Mexico,  and  West  Indies. 
Vitis  Mlaiicoii,  Muason.    Sierra  Madre  Mountains,  Western  Mexico. 


8  THE   GRAPE  CULTUKIST. 

GROUP  8.     MUSCADINLE.     (Southern  Fox  Grape.) 

Vine  slender,  canes  short-jointed,  angled,  tendrils 
intermittent,  buds  very  small,  globose,  brown,  when 
unfolding  dull  brownish -green  ;  leaves  small,  round,  or 
somewhat  cordate,  very  coarsely  toothed  with  broad 
bluntish  teeth,  thin  and  smooth  on  both  sides ;  clusters 
small,  loose  ;  peduncle  short ;  berries  small  in  Munsoni- 
ana,  and  shining  black ;  without  pulp  or  musky  odor  or 
taste,  but  very  large  and  musky  in  the  V.  rotundifolia, 
or  common  Scuppernong  grape  of  the  Southern  States. 

Vitis  rotundifolia,  Michaux.    All  Southern  States  east  of  100°  longitude 

and  south  of  38°  latitude. 
Vitis  Munsoniana,  Simpson.    Central  and  South  Florida. 

According  to  the  preceding  classification,  we  have 
twenty-five  species  of  the  grape  indigenous  to  North 
America,  instead  of  less  than  half  that  number,  as  given 
in  the  older  botanical  works ;  but  the  later  botanists  have 
had  much  better  opportunities  of  examining  the  wild 
vines  than  the  earlier  investigators,  hence  their  conclu- 
sions are  all  the  more  deserving  of  credence ;  besides,  if 
not  absolutely  perfect,  they  will  do  no  harm,  and  may 
aid  present  and  future  investigators  in  determining  the 
true  relation  of  our  various  species  and  varieties. 

In  the  following  table,  from  the  monograph  referred 
to  on  a  preceding  page,  the  species  and  varieties  are 
arranged  in  a  convenient  form  for  study,  with  name  of 
botanist  who  first  described  them,  where  found,  etc.  : 

Genus  VITIS,  Tournefort  (Linnaeus     in    part"). 

(Explanation:  H.— Hardy  north;  H.  H.— Half-hardy  north; 
T.— Tender  north.] 

SECTION  l.—Euvitis.    Planchon. 

Specific 

_,  number. 

Series  1.  Riparice. 

Vitis  rupestris(Schee\e),PL 1 

Vitis  riparia  (Michaux),  H.  (  V.  palmata,  Vahl) 2 

Vitis  Soloiris  (Hort.  Berol.),  H 3 

Vitis  Doaniana  (Munsou),  H 4 


BOTAKICAL   CHARACTERISTICS. 


All  excellent  for  hybridizing  other  species. 
Scries  2.  Ocddentales. 

Vitls    Arizonica  (Engelmann),   H.    H.,   the   "CaSon    Grape"   of 

Arizona I 

Var.  glabra  (Munson),  H.  H 

Vitis  Girdiana  (Munson),  T.,   the  Southern  California  species; 
mildews  ft 

Vitis  Californica  (Bentham),  T.,  the  Northern  California  species ; 

mildews ^ 

Series  3.  Coriacece. 

Vitis  Champini  (Plaiichon),  H.  H.,  excellent,  Southwest  Texas 8 

Vitis  candicans  (Engelmann),  H.  H.,  "Mustang  Grape"  of  Texas..    9 

Vitis  coriacea  (Shuttle worth),  T.,  Florida 10 

Series  4.  Labruscce. 

Vitis  labrusca  (Linnaeus),  H.,  to  which  Ives,  Concord,  etc.,  belong  11 
Series  5.  JZstivales. 

Vitis  vinifera  (Linnaeus),  T.,  European  and  Asiatic  grape (a) 

Vitis   Bourquiniana  (Munson),  H.  H.,  South  European,  Herbe- 
mont,  etc (b) 

Vitis  Lincecumii  (Buckley),  H.,  "Texas  Post-Oak  Grape,"  large, 

fine ...  12 

Var.  glauca  (Munson),  H.,  Northern  Texas  and  Missouri 

Vitis  bicolor  (Leconte),  H.,  "Blue  Grape,"  "Winter  Grape,"  of 
Ohio,  Michigan 13 

Vitis  cestivalis  (Michnux),  A.,  Tennessee,  Virginia,  Georgia,  etc. ..  14 

Vitis  Simpsotiii  (Munson),  T.,  Florida 15 

Series  6.  Cordifolice. 

Vitis  cordifolia  (Michaux),  H.,  "Frost  Grape,"  "  'Possum  Grape" . .  .16 

Vitis  rubra  (Michaux),  (V.palmata,  Engelmann),  H.,  Southern  Illi- 
nois, ornamental 17 

Vitis  monticola  (Buckley),    H.    H.,    "Sweet  Mountain   Grape," 

Southwestern  Texas 18 

Series  7.  Cinerascentcs. 

Vitis  Virginiana  (Munson),  H.,  mountain  streams  Southwestern 
Virgin  ia 19 

Vitis  Berlandieri  (Planchon),  H.  H.,  from  chalky  soils  of  South- 
western Texas 20 

Vitis  cinerea  (Engelmann),  H.,  "Sweet  Winter  Grape,"  Illinois, 

Texas,  and  eastward 21 

Var.  FLoridana  (Munson),  Florida  and  along  the  Gulf  coast. . . 

Vitis  Caribcea(De  Candolle),  T.,  West  Indies  and  Eastern  Mexico. .  22 

Vitis  Blancoii  (Munson),  T.,  Sierra  Madre  Mountains,  Mexico 23 

SECTION  Il.—Puncticulosis,  Munson. 
Series  1.  Muscadinice 

Vitis  f^tundifolia  (Michaux),  H.  II.,  "Muscadine  Grape"  of  the 
South 24 

Vitis  Musoniana  (Simpson),   H.   H.,    "Bird   Grape,"  ('-Mustang 
Grape,"  Chapman),  Southern  Florida 25 

The  European  and  Asiatic  species  of  the  grape  have 
passed  through  almost  the  same  vicissitudes  as  the  Amer- 
ican species,  in  the  way  of  re-arranged  classifications  by 


10  THE   GBAPE    CT/LIURIST. 

botanists,  but  at  the  present  uay  all  of  the  many  thou- 
sand varieties  cultivated  in  European  countries,  with 
the  exception  of  the  few  introduced  from  America,  are 
supposed  to  have  originated  from  one  species,  namely, 
the  Vitis  vinifera,  and  it  is  not  positively  known  which 
one  of  these  two  thousand  or  more  varieties  is  the  orig- 
inal, although  it  can  be  proved  that  many  of  them  are 
not ;  it  is,  therefore,  impossible  to  give  a  description  of 
the  foreign  vine  so  that  it  can  be  recognized  by  one  not 
previously  acquainted  with  the  general  appearance  of 
the  many  varieties  belonging  to  it.  Language,  however 
skillfully  applied,  is  often  inadequate  to  describe  to 
others  our  own  knowledge  or  impressions.  For  instance, 
we  may  have  a  friend  whom  we  wish  to  describe  to 
another  so  that  he  shall  be  able  to  know  him  among  a 
thousand ;  but  unless  the  one  described  has  some  unu- 
sual mark  to  designate  him,  twenty  may  be  found  in  the 
thousand  to  answer  the  description  exactly — at  least,  to 
a  stranger.  So  it  is  with  the  foreign  vine ;  to  those 
who  have  become  acquainted  with  both  it  and  the  native 
species,  it  is  an  easy  task  to  distinguish  one  from  the 
other,  no  matter  how  much  each  may  vary ;  but  to  de- 
scribe the  two  so  that  others  may  learn  the  difference  is 
not  so  readily  done.  Foreign  varieties  have  leaves  rang- 
ing through  all  the  gradations  of  color  known  as  green 
— so  have  ours  ;  some  approach  the  red — so  do  ours ; 
many  have  a  very  shining  surface,  and  others  are  downy 
or  woolly — so  are  ours.  The  leaf  of  the  European  grape 
also  presents  every  conceivable  shape,  preserving,  how- 
ever, characteristics  enough  to  be  recognizable  as  belong- 
ing to  the  grape  genus.  And  we  have  one  species,  the 
Labrusca,  the  varieties  of  which  will  match  any  of  them 
in  shape.  The  young  wood  of  many  of  the  foreign  van- 
eties  is  covered  with  a  grayish-blue  bloom,  said  by  chem- 
ists to  be  wax  ;  this  is  sometimes  considered  a  distinctive 
mark  of  the  foreign  varieties,  but  our  cor di folio  is 


BOTANICAL    CHARACTERISTICS.  ll 

Abundantly  furnished  with  it.  We  could  multiply  these 
parallel  characters  indefinitely,  but  enough  has  been  said 
to  show  how  difficult  it  is  to  designate  the  species  to 
which  a  particular  variety  belongs,  especially  if  we  have 
words  only  for  our  guidance.  There  are,  however,  cer- 
tain characteristics  so  prominent  that  they  may  serve  as 
a  partial  guide  until  some  freak  of  nature  admonishes  us 
to  lay  them  aside.  1st.  The  skin  of  our  native  grape 
slips  from  the  pulp,  while  that  of  the  foreign  varieties 
adheres  to  it  like  the  skin  of  the  apple,  and  those  which 
have  a  fleshy  pulp  allow  the  seeds  to  drop  from  it  when 
it  is  broken.  The  seeds  of  our  native  grapes  are  envel- 
oped and  held  together  by  the  pulp,  more  or  less  persist- 
ent in  different  varieties ;  but  to  observe  this  the  fruit 
of  some  of  the  newer  ones  must  be  examined  before  they 
are  fully  ripe,  for  at  that  time  the  pulp  has  become  so 
tender  that  it  is  scarcely  more  than  a  liquid.  The  tough 
pulp  is  a  prominent  characteristic  of  the  Vitis  Lalrusca 
and  its  varieties.  2d.  The  bark  of  some  of  the  native 
grapes,  particularly  on  the  one-year-old  canes,  parts  very 
readily  from  the  wood  ;  it  is  also  quite  tough,  and  in 
some  instances  it  may  be  divided  into  small  threads 
resembling  hemp,  while  the  bark  on  the  young  wood  of 
the  foreign  vine  usually  adheres  more  firmly,  and  is  also 
(;iiite  brittle.  The  bark  of  the  native  vines,  particularly 
the  northern  species,  is  harder  than  that  of  the  foreign 
one,  and  the  prevailing  colors  are  dark  maroon  or  brown, 
varying  to  light  orange.  Very  few  of  the  cultivated 
native  varieties  have  any  bloom  upon  the  young  wood, 
v/hile  that  of  the  foreign  ones,  when  grown  m  the  open 
dr,  usually  has  a  grayish  or  ashen  hue,  and  is  also  more 
or  less  supplied  with  a  peculiar  blue  bloom. 

Many  other  peculiarities  might  be  noticed,  but  as 
we  do  not  recommend  foreign  varieties  for  out-door  cul- 
ture in  the  Northern  States,  there  is  no  necessity  of  pur- 
suing this  subject  further. 


12  THE   GRAPE   CULTURIST. 

Propagation  by  Seed. — As  the  propagation  of 
the  grape  from  seeds  is  the  only  method  by  which  new 
varieties  can  be  produced,  it  is  all-important  to  the  wel- 
fare and  prosperity  of  grape  culture  in  this  country  that 
it  should  receive  the  attention  of  all  friends  of  progress 
in  this  department  of  horticulture.  Although  great 
advance  has  been  made  in  the  last  few  years,  and  we 
now  have  a  few  fine  table  and  wine  grapes,  yet  we  have 
none  that  are  perfect,  or  but  what  may  be  far  surpassed, 
even  if  only  ordinary  skill  is  applied  to  the  growing  of 
seedlings. 

The  seeds  should  always  be  gathered  from  grapes 
that  are  fully  ripe,  and  from  the  best  varieties  that  can 
be  obtained.  Those  varieties  which  have  any  prominent 
defect,  such  as  slow  growth,  thin,  small  leaves,  those 
that  are  liable  to  mildew,  vines  that  are  tender,  or  ripen 
their  fruit  very  late,  should  be  avoided,  unless  they  pos- 
sess some  excellent  quality  which  it  would  be  desirable 
to  perpetuate,  and  which  can  not  be  found  in  any  other 
variety.  It  must  not  be  expected  that  good,  strong, 
healthy  seedlings  will  be  grown  every  year,  even  from 
the  very  healthiest  native  variety,  as  the  seeds  of  the 
grape  are  not  fully  developed  every  season,  although  the 
grape  itself  may  appear  to  be  perfect.  I  mention  this, 
that  those  who  fail  to  grow  good  healthy  seedlings  on 
the  first  trial,  may  not  be  discouraged.  The  next  sea- 
son, with  no  greater  care,  they  may  have  perfect  success. 
It  must  not  be  expected  that  all  the  seedlings,  nor  any 
great  portion  of  them,  will  produce  better  fruit  than  the 
parent,  for  although  the  vine  has  a  tendency  to  improve 
upon  its  wild  nature — a  return,  as  it  were,  for  the  care 
and  labor  bestowed  upon  it — yet  after  it  has  taken  a  few 
steps  toward  civilization,  a  large  portion  of  its  offspring 
shows  a  disposition  to  recede  to  its  original  state.  In 
growing  a  thousand  seedlings  from  a  choice  improved 
variety,  if  we  succeed  in  getting  one  even  but  little  bei> 
fcer  than  the  parent,  we  would  be  well  repaid. 


BOTANICAL   CHARACTERISTICS.  13 

It  is  this  very  uncertainty  that  affords  the  pleasure 
and  the  rarity  of  satisfactory  results  which  gives  value 
to  this  department  of  grape  culture.  Seedling  grapes 
are  from  three  to  ten  years  in  coming  into  bearing — 
usually  the  wildest  and  the  most  inferior  varieties  will 
grow  the  strongest,  and  come  into  bearing  first.  I  have 
frequently  marked  two-year-old  seedlings  that  showed 
strong  indications  of  their  wild  character,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  ascertaining  how  near  one  could  judge  of  the 
worthlessness  of  a  seedling  by  its  leaf  and  growth.  Some 
of  those  marked  produced  fruit  when  only  three  years  old, 
and  every  one  of  them  was  as  worthless  in  fruit  as  they 
were  wild  in  growth,  although  all  were  from  improved 
varieties. 

Occasionally  a  seedling  will  be  grown  that  will 
never  produce  fruit ;  for  (see  botanical  description)  our 
native  varieties  are  sometimes  dioecious,  that 
is,  one  vine  produces  flowers  having  only 
pistils,  and  another  only  stamens.  Fig.  2 
shows  a  grape  flower  (somewhat  magnified) 
after  the  petals  have  fallen.  The  pistil,  c, 
FIG.  2.  is  in  the  center,  while  the  five  stamens,  B, 
surround  it.  If  it  should  happen  to  be  the  former  (pis- 
tillate), then  the  flowers  may  be  fertilized  from  the  per- 
fect flowers  of  another  vine ;  but  should  it 
prove  to  be  one  of  the  latter,  with  staminate, 
or  male  flowers,  then  it  will  produce  no  fruit. 
Although  we  speak  of  flowers  being  staminate, 
yet  we  have  never  seen,  nor  have  we  good  au- 
thority for  believing,  that  there  are  any  varie-  FIG-  3- 
ties  or  species  that  are  entirely  wanting  in  the  rudi- 
ments of  a  pistil,  though  it  may  be  so  deformed  that  its 
usefulness  is  destroyed. 

Again,  there  will  occasionally  appear  seedlings  with 
both  perfect  and  imperfect  flowers  on  the  same  vine  and 
in  the  same  cluster  \  such  vines  are  called  polygamous. 


14  THE   GRAPE   CULTURIST. 

These  occur  more  frequently  than  the  dioecious ;  and  if 
imperfect  flowers  occur,  then,  of  course,  we  have  very 
imperfect  bunches  of  fruit,  although  this  may  not  always 
be  owing  to  a  deformed  stigma,  but  to  an  insufficient  sup- 
ply of  pollen,  owing  to  deformed  stamens.  The  Tailor 
grape  (white)  and  Oporto  (black)  are  striking  illustrations 
of  perfect  and  imperfect  flowers  in  the  same  cluster. 
But  the  imperfections  in  the  flowers  of  these  seem  to  be 
mostly  in  the  stamens,  they  being  very  much  deformed ; 

for  when  the  cap  or  petals 
drop  off,  the  stamens  are 
bent  down,  as  seen,  B,  in 
Fig.  3  ;  not  standing  erect, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  2. 

Fig.  4  represents  a  fair 
sample  of  the  bunches  pro- 
duced upon  a  vigorous  vine 
of  the  Taylor.  Some  of 
the  bunches  may  contain 
more  perfect  berries  than 
the  one  from  which  this 
engraving  was  made,  and 
others  with  not  more  than 
two  or  three  perfect  ones. 
The  small,  undeveloped 
berries  are  those  that  were 
FIG-  4-  not  fertilized.  Other  vari- 

eties of  this  class  show  the  same  phenomenon,  and  all 
that  I  have  examined  exhibit  more  or  less  the  deformed 
stamens,  as  shown  in  Fig.  3.  The  Taylor  is  a  pure 
native  variety,  belonging  to  what  appears  to  be  a  distinct 
species,  found  growing  along  the  Alleghany  range,  from 
Southern  New  York  to  Alabama,  and  along  the  banks  of 
those  streams  that  flow  from  these  mountains.  It  prob- 
ably is  also  found  near  the  Rocky  Mountains,  as  several 
varieties  I  have  received  from  Nebraska  and  Kansas 
appear  to  be  the  same  species. 


GROWING    FROM    SEED.  15 

Some  of  the  individuals  of  this  group  possess  excel- 
lent qualities,  which,  when  properly  developed,  and  their 
defects  remedied,  will  make  the  most  valuable  wine 
grapes  of  the  country. 


CHAPTER  II. 

GROWING   FROM   SEED. 

Gather  the  grapes  when  fully  ripe,  and  either  dry 
them  in  the  sun  or  in  a  dry  room,  until  they  appear  like 
raisins,  and  keep  them  in  this  way  until  spring,  or, 
when  they  are  gathered,  the  seeds  may  be  separated  from 
the  pulp.  Put  in  pots  or  boxes,  mixed  with  pure  sand 
or  sandy  loam,  and  set  away  in  the  cellar,  or  bury  in  the 
open  ground,  until  spring.  Mice  are  very  fond  of  grapes 
and  grape  seeds,  and  they  should  be  placed  where  these 
pests  can  not  reach  them.  No  matter  whether  the  seeds 
are  frozen  or  not,  all  that  is  requisite  is,  that  they  shall 
not  get  too  dry ;  if  they  are  kept  cool  and  moist,  their 
germinating  powers  will  remain  unimpaired. 

The  soil  for  a  seed  bed  should  be  light,  moderately 
dry,  and  thoroughly  pulverized  to  at  least  two  feet  in 
depth.  If  not  naturally  very  rich,  it  should  be  made  so 
by  adding  a  liberal  quantity  of  old,  well-decomposed 
manure  from  the  barnyard,  and  incorporating  it  well 
with  the  soil.  The  whole  success  often  depends  upon 
getting  a  good,  strong,  healthy  growth  the  first  season. 
So  soon  in  the  spring  as  the  weather  will  permit,  sow 
the  seeds  in  drills  about  a  foot  apart,  and  not  too  thickly 
in  the  drills — one  or  two  inches  apart  will  do;  cover 
about  three-quarters  of  an  inch  deep,  and  give  a  liberal 
supply  of  water,  if  the  weather  is  dry.  When  the  plants 
first  appear  above  ground,  they  should  be  partially 


1C  THE   GRAPE   CULTUKIST. 

shaded,  to  prevent  their  being  burnt  off  by  the  sun. 
The  shading  may  be  dispensed  with  so  soon  as  the  second 
or  third  leaves  are  formed,  at  which  time  small  sticks, 
say  from  a  quarter  to  one-half  inch  in  diameter,  and  two 
feet  long,  should  be  stuck  by  the  side  of  each  plant ; 
every  little  plant  will  throw  out  its  tendrils  and  attach 
itself  to  the  sticks,  and  grow  much  more  rapidly  than  it 
would  if  such  a  support  were  not  given.  The  stakes,  if 
set  thickly  together,  will  afford  a  partial  shade  to  the 
young  plants,  which  is  often  very  beneficial,  especially  if 
the  summer  should  prove  very  warm.  Another  method 
with  which  I  have  succeeded  most  admirably,  is  to  sow 
the  grape  seeds  thinly  in  the  drills  with  apple  seeds; 
the  apple  seedlings  coming  up  with  those  of  the  grape, 
or  usually  a  little  before,  afford  just  sufficient  shade 
for  the  young  vines ;  and  as  the  vine  grows,  they  fasten 
themselves  to  the  young  trees,  which  serve  in  place  of 
stakes.  A  still  better  plan  would  be  to  sow  the  apple 
seeds  in  drills,  running  east  and  west,  one  foot  apart, 
and  the  seeds  about  one  inch  apart  in  the  drill,  after 
which  sow  the  grape  seeds  on  the  north  side  of  the  drill, 
but  close  up  to  them,  say  within  two  inches,  at  least. 
I  use  apple  <  or  pear  seeds,  instead  of  cherry,  peach,  or 
similar  kinds,  because  they  produce  but  very  few  side 
roots  the  first  year,  and,  consequently,  do  not  interfere 
with  the  growth  of  the  seedling  vines.  When  the  plants 
have  made  a  few  inches  of  growth,  a  light  mulch  of 
leaves,  hay,  or  moss  may  be  spread  over  the  entire  sur- 
face of  the  bed ;  this  will  keep  the  roots  moist  and  pre- 
vent any  sudden  check  to  their  growth.  If  the  weather 
should  prove  dry,  give  an  occasional  watering — not  a 
sprinkling,  but  a  good  soaking ;  once  a  week  will  be  suf- 
ficient. No  liquid  manure  will  be  needed  if  the  soil  was 
properly  enriched  when  the  bed  was  made  ;  but  if  the 
vines  do  not  grow  as  rapidly  as  desired,  then  put  a  few 
shovelfuls  of  good  fresh  barnyard  manure  into  a  barrel 


GROWING  FROM   SEED.  1? 

of  water,  stir  it  well,  let  it  settle,  and  then  draw  off  the 
water  and  apply  it  to  the  plants  ;  or,  instead,  a  solution 
of  two  pounds  of  guano  to  a  barrel  of  water  may  be  used 
with  good  effect.  If  there  should  be  signs  of  mildew  on 
the  plants,  a  few  handfuls  of  sulphur,  scattered  over  the 
plants  and  bed,  will  usually  prevent  its  further  progress  ; 
or  spraying  with  some  of  the  fungicides  recommended 
under  "fungous  diseases"  will  answer  equally  as  well, 
or,  perhaps,  better.  Grape  seedlings,  when  well  started, 
usually  grow  quite  rapidly,  often  making  two  to  four 
feet  of  wood  the  first  season. 

Those  who  have  greenhouses  or  hotbeds  may  sow 
the  seeds  in  boxes  or  seed-pans,  and  place  them  in  these 
structures,  so  that  they  may  receive  artificial  heat ;  but 
for  growing  hardy  varieties  the  open  ground  is  prefer- 
able, as  it  is  more  natural ;  and  the  sickly  seedlings,  of 
which  there  are  always  more  or  less,  will  be  more  likely 
to  show  their  feebleness  in  the  open  ground,  and  can  be 
selected  from  the  vigorous  and  thrown  away,  avoiding 
further  trouble.  When  the  plants  have  made  one  sea- 
son's growth,  and  the  frost  has  killed  their  leaves,  they 
should  be  taken  up,  a  portion  of  the  stem  cut  off,  and 
the  long  perpendicular  root  shortened  at  least  one-half 
its  length ;  then  heel  them  in  in  some  dry,  warm  place 
in  the  open  ground.  All  small,  sickly  looking  plants 
should  be  thrown  away,  for  they  will  seldom  make  good 
vines  if  they  fail  to  make  a  good  growth  the  first  season. 
At  the  approach  of  very  cold  weather  cover  the  entire 
tops  with  soil  or  coarse  litter,  deep  enough  to  insure 
them  against  being  severely  frozen;  not  that  freezing 
would  be  sure  to  kill  them,  but  it  would  tend  to  impair 
their  vitality.  In  the  spring  take  out  the  plants  and 
cut  the  stems  off  to  within  four  inches  of  their  roots, 
then  plant  them  out  in  rows  four  feet  apart,  and  three 
or  four  feet  apart  in  the  rows.  The  ground  for  their 
reception  should  be  made  rich  and  deep,  using  any  old, 


18  THE   GRAPE   CULTURIST. 

well-decomposed  manure  that  may  be  at  hand,  or  old 
sods  or  muck ;  if  the  latter  is  used,  a  peck  of  ashes  to 
the  square  rod,  or  half  that  quantity  of  lime,  may  be 
added,  with  good  effect.  The  whole  soil  should  be 
worked  over  at  least  eighteen  inches  deep,  either  with 
the  plow  or  spade. 

The  roots  of  the  vines  should  be  carefully  spread 
out,  so  that  no  two  will  come  in  contact ;  then  sprinkle 
the  soil  among  them,  covering  so  that  the  upper  bud  on 
the  four-inch  stem  will  be  just  above  the  ground ;  this 
will  give  about  three  inches  of  soil  above  the  upper  tier 
of  roots,  which  is  sufficient  for  young  plants,  and  more 
than  this  would  be  injurious.  After  the  vine  is  planted 
press  the  soil  down  with  the  foot,  so  that  it  shall  be  firm, 
but  not  packed.  A  good  strong  stake,  say  one  and  a 
half  inches  in  diameter,  and  six  to  eight  feet  long,  should 
now  be  put  down  by  each  plant  to  tie  it  to  as  it  grows. 
Let  but  one  shoot  grow,  and  pinch  off  all  side  branches 
as  they  appear ;  keep  the  vine  tied  to  the  stake  so  that 
it  shall  not  get  broken  off  by  the  wind,  and  thereby 
checked  in  growth.  Keep  the  ground  clear  of  weeds,  and 
stir  the  surface  often  with  the  hoe  or  rake,  but  never  deep 
enough  to  reach  the  roots.  On  very  loose  and  porous 
soils  it  is  better  to  mulch  the  plants ;  but  if  the  soil  is  a 
compact  loam,  or  somewhat  clayey,  then  it  is  better  to 
hoe  often  than  to  mulch,  because  if  you  cover  up  soils 
that  are  naturally  compact,  they  will  hold  too  much 
moisture,  and  sometimes  become  soured  for  want  of 
aeration. 

At  the  end  of  the  season's  growth,  and  just  before 
the  ground  freezes,  the  vines  should  be  pruned,  by  cut- 
ting them  back  to  within  eight  or  ten  inches  of  the 
ground ;  then  bank  up  the  soil  about  them,  or  bend 
them  down,  and  then  cover  them  ;  if  covered  with  straw 
or  leaves,  there  is  danger  of  their  being  destroyed  by 
mice.  All  that  is  now  required  is  to  protect  them 


GROWING    FROM    SEED.  19 

slightly  from  the  sudden  changes  in  winter.  The  follow- 
ing spring  remove  the  covering  and  give  the  vines  a  top- 
dressing  of  manure,  and  work  it  in  with  the  hoe  during 
the  summer.  The  vine  should  be  allowed  to  make  only 
a  single  shoot  this  (the  third)  season,  and  if  healthy  and 
vigorous,  it  will  make  a  growth  of  ten  to  fifteen  feet  if 
not  checked  ;  but  if  allowed  to  grow  unchecked,  it  would 
necessitate  very  long  and  stout  stakes,  besides  the  trouble 
of  keeping  them  tied.  It  is  best  not  to  allow  them  to 
grow  so  long,  but  pinch  off  the  tops  when  they  have 
grown  five  or  six  feet  high,  and  when  they  start  again 
and  have  grown  a  foot  or  more,  check  them  again ;  also 
pinch  off  the  ends  of  all  the  side  shoots,  or  laterals,  as 
they  are  termed ;  this  concentrates  the  strength  of  the 
vine,  and  hastens  its  maturity. 

The  vines  are  now  three  years  old,  and  we  may 
begin  to  look  for  fruit  next  season,  if  they  have  not 
already  shown  it  upon  some  of  the  strongest.  But  to 
be  sure  of  getting  a  strong  growth  next  season,  we  should 
prune  the  vines  back  to  two  feet,  and  allow  but  two 
shoots  to  grow;  and  further,  they  are  more  likely  to 
produce  fruit  from  the  lower  than  the  upper  buds,  par- 
ticularly if  cut  back. 

This  cuUfog  back  may  be  deferred  until  the  last  of 
February,  r^'jcss  it  is  desirable  to  cover  the  vines  again, 
which  it  \z  not,  unless  the  climate  is  so  severe  that  it  is 
not  expeiied  tney  TV  ill  ever  withstand  the  winter.  In 
the  vicinity  of  New  York  I  would  not  cover  seedlings 
after  the  second  season. 

We  have  now  followed  our  grape  seedlings  until 
they  are  four  years  old  ;  they  should  now  be  kept  pruned 
pretty  short,  say  to  two  or  three  buds  of  the  previous 
season's  growth,  every  season  until  they  have  fruited, 
and  then  select  those  that  promise  well  and  discard  the 
others.  If  cuttings  or  layers  are  taken  from  the  seed- 
lings, they  will  often  produce  fruit  before  the  parent 


20  THE   GRAPE   CULTURIST. 

plant.     For  the  manner  of  making  these,  see  chapter  on 
propagating  by  layers  and  cuttings. 


CHAPTER  III. 

PROPAGATION   BY   SINGLE  BUDS. 

The  mode  of  propagation  of  the  grape  from  single 
buds,  or  eyes,  is  particularly  valuable,  when  it  is  desired 
to  increase  rare  and  desirable  varieties.  It  is  supposed 
to  have  been  first  suggested  by  the  Rev.  Mr.  Mitchell,  of 
England,  in  1777,  and  has  been  practiced  sufficiently  to 
establish  its  true  merits — some  of  which  are  :  1st.  A 
greater  number  of  plants  can  be  produced  from  a  given 
quantity  of  wood  than  by  any  other  mode.  2d.  Vines 
so  propagated  contain  just  enough  of  the  parent  vine  to 
insure  the  perpetuation  of  a  healthy  plant  of  its  kind, 
but  not  enough  to  transmit  disease  to  it  by  its  decay,  as 
sometimes  occurs  when  a  large  amount  of  the  old  wood 
is  used.  3d.  As  in  this  mode  of  propagation  so  small  an 
amount  of  wood  is  used  that  it  admits  of  a  large  number 
of  cuttings  being  started  in  a  small  space,  and  as  the 
buds  are  nearly  always  forced  into  growth  by  artificial 
heat,  we  may  commence  much  earlier  in  the  season  than 
when  propagating  in  the  open  air,  thereby  giving  a 
much  longer  time  for  increasing,  prolonging,  and  ripen- 
ing their  growth.  This  is  secured,  even  if  they  are 
planted  out  in  the  open  ground,  so  soon  as  the  plants 
become  well  rooted  and  the  weather  sufficiently  warm. 
4th.  But  the  greatest  benefit  arising  from  this  mode  of 
propagating  is,  that  varieties  that  are  very  difficult  to 
increase  by  other  methods,  can  be  multiplied  with  the 
greatest  facility  by  this.  In  fact,  no  variety  or  species 
has  yet  been  discovered  that  can  not  be  grown  readily 
with  artificial  heat  from  single  bud  cuttings. 


PROPAGATION   BY   SINGLE   BUDS.  21 

Vines  properly  grown  from  single  buds  are  certainly 
equal  to  those  propagated  by  any  other  mode ;  but  if 
improperly  grown,  they  are  of  but  little  value,  and  often 
entirely  worthless. 

The  buds  used  for  propagating  should  be  large  and 
well  developed,  and  at  no  time  of  their  growth  should 
the  plants  be  allowed  to  receive  a  check,  either  by  being 
too  cold  or  too  hot.  "While  it  may  be  necessary  to  keep 
up  a  vigorous  growth,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the 
plants  may  be  forced  too  rapidly  by  the  use  of  stimulat- 
ing manures,  and  by  subjecting  them  to  too  great  heat, 
the  result  of  which  will  be  soft,  spongy,  unripened  wood 
and  roots.  Sometimes  the  roots  will  have  small  tuberous 
appendages  at  their  ends,  which  is  often  caused  by  the 
presence  of  too  much  stimulating  food.  When  vines 
are  propagated  from  single  buds,  and  are  kept  in  pots 
during  the  entire  season,  the  enlargement  of  the  ends  of 
the  roots  will  usually  occur  upon  all  those  that  grow  out 
until  they  reach  the  sides  of  the  pots.  This  does  not 
show  disease  nor  overgrowth,  but  merely  that  the  roots 
are  crowded,  and  that  they  need  more  room.  But  when 
these  little  tubers  are  found  on  the  small  roots  all 
through  the  soil,  it  shows  that  they  have  been  made 
unhealthy  by  injudicious  treatment,  or  have  been  at- 
tacked by  the  grape  louse  (Phylloxera),  which  will  be 
described  in  another  chapter. 

Mode  of  Operation. — Cut  the  wood  from  the 
vines  in  the  fall,  after  the  leaves  have  fallen,  but  before 
it  has  been  severely  frozen,  and  put  away  in  moist  earth 
or  sand  in  the  cellar,  or  bury  it  in  the  open  ground, 
where  it  will  be  protected  from  the  frost  and  can  be 
reached  when  wanted.  The  last  of  February  or  the  first 
of  March  is  the  usual  time,  in  this  latitude,  to  commence 
starting  the  buds.  There  is  nothing  gained  by  forcing 
the  buds  into  growth  too  early ;  better  wait  until  the 
season  arrives  when  they  naturally  begin  to  swell,  as 


22  THE   GRAPE   CULTURIST. 

they  will  then  grow  more  readily  and  make  more  healthy 
plants  than  if  started  in  the  early  part  of  winter.  At 
this  time  take  out  the  cuttings  and  cut  them  up  into 
pieces,  as  represented  in  Fig.  5  ;  put  these  into  water  as 
they  are  cut ;  this  will  prevent  their  becoming  dry  while 
they  are  being  prepared ;  and  if  they  are  allowed  to  re- 
main in  the  water  for  twenty-four  to  forty-eight  hours, 
it  will  do  them  no  harm,  but  often  be  of  benefit,  espe- 
cially to  the  hard- wooded  varieties,  as  it  softens  the 
alburnous  matter  from  which  the  roots  grow,  and  loos- 
ens the  outer  bark,  and  thereby  allows  the  roots  to  push 

through  it  more  readily, 
there  being  always  more  roots 
produced  from  other  parts 
of  the  cutting  than  from 
FIG.  5.  that  part  where  the  cambium 

has  been  exposed  by  the  knife.  It  is  also  a  benefit  to 
some  varieties  that  produce  roots  very  tardily,  to  scrape 
off  a  portion  of  the  outer  bark  and  the  remains  of  the 
old  leaf-stalk  which  immediately  surround  the  base  of 
the  bud,  so  as  to  partially  expose  the  inner  bark. 

When  a  quantity  of  the  buds  are  prepared  they 
should  be  put  into  moderate-sized  pots  (six  or  eight  inch 
is  a  convenient  size)  filled  to  within  about  an  inch  of 
the  top  with  pure  and  moderately  coarse  sand,  firmly 
packed.  Place  the  cuttings,  with  the  buds  up,  about  an 
inch  apart  all  over  the  surface,  press  them  down  firmly 
with  the  thumb  and  finger;  sift  on  sufficient  sand  to 
cover  the  upper  point  of  the  bud  about  a  quarter  of  an 
inch  deep,  then  press  it  all  down  evenly,  using  the  bot- 
tom of  another  pot  for  the  purpose,  after  which  apply 
water  enough  to  just  moisten  the  whole  contents  of 
the  pot. 

Sand  taken  from  the  banks  of  fresh-water  ponds  or 
running  streams  is  the  best  for  propagating  purposes,  as 
;t  is  nearly  free  from  impurities.  That  taken  from  com= 


PROPAGATION     uY   SINGLE    BUDS.  £3 

mon  sand  banks  often  contains  oxide  of  iron  and  other 
foreign  matters  to  an  extent  that  renders  useless  all 
attempts  to  grow  anything  in  it.  When  pure  sand  can- 
not be  obtained,  the  other  can  be  made  to  answer  by 
exposing  it  to  the  action  of  the  air  and  rains  for  a  few 
months,  or  by  washing  it  thoroughly  before  using. 

After  the  pots  have  been  filled  with  cuttings,  they 
should  be  placed  in  a  temperature  between  40°  and  50°, 
and  allowed  to  remain  from  two  to  three  weeks,  water- 
ing just  enough  to  keep  them  moist,  but  not  wet.  As 
roots  are  formed  at  a  much  lower  degree  of  temperature, 
and  less  rapidly  than  leaves,  we  are  thus  enabled  to 
cause  the  process  of  rooting  to  begin  (which  is  very 
essential)  before  we  place  them  in  a  position  to  com- 
mence growth;  and  when  this  does  start,  the  roots, 
being  formed,  or  in  process  of  formation,  will  then  issue 
with  such  rapidity  that  they  will  be  capable  of  absorbing 
food  to  supply  the  new  growth  as  soon  as  it  has  con- 
sumed that  which  was  laid  up  in  the  bud  the  previous 
season. 

After  removing  the  pots  from  their  first  position, 
place  them  in  the  frames,  which  should  be  partially  filled 
with  sand  and  located  over  the  flues  or  hot-water  pipes, 
plunging  them  at  least  one-half  their  depth  in  the  sand ; 
give  them  bottom  heat  of  60°  for  the  first  few  days,  then 
gradually  raise  it  to  80° ;  keep  the  frames  partly  open, 
and  the  temperature  of  the  atmosphere  in  them  ten 
degrees  lower,  if  possible,  than  that  of  the  sand  under 
them,  bearing  in  mind  that  we  wish  to  excite  the  roots 
to  grow  before  the  leaves.  When  the  buds  begin  to 
push,  allow  the  temperature  to  increase  to  90°  or  95°, 
close  the  frames  and  keep  the  atmosphere  moist  by  fre- 
quent waterings;  a  liberal  application  once  a  day  will 
usually  be  sufficient.  Pure  rainwater  is  best,  and  should 
always  be  of  the  temperature  of  the  air  in  the  house,  or 
nearly  so.  Cold  water  would  surely  check  the  growth 


24  THE    GRAPE   CULTUEIST. 

of  the  plants.  Examine  the  young  growth  every  day  to 
see  that  it  does  not  commence  rotting,  or  damping  off, 
as  it  is  called ;  should  there  be  signs  of  this,  give  a  little 
more  air ;  but  be  careful  of  cold  currents  from  the  out- 
side, as  these  are  often  fatal  to  the  young  plants.  Also 
avoid  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun,  either  by  whitewashing 
the  glass,  or  nailing  up  strips  of  white  muslin  or  paper 
to  the  rafters  of  the  house. 

When  the  plants  have  made  a  growth  of  two  or  three 
inches,  they  should  be  shifted  into  two-and-one-half  to 
three-inch  pots,  putting  one  plant  into  each. 

Up  to  this  time  no  material  has  been  used  which 
contained  any  appreciable  amount  of  plant  food,  nor  has 
it  been  needed,  for  the  growth  of  roots  and  leaves  has 
been  produced  from  the  food  stored  in  the  bud  and  the 
wood  attached,  and  what  little  they  may  have  obtained 
from  the  air,  water  and  sand.  The  plants  are  now  in 
condition  to  use  more  substantial  nutriment,  conse- 
quently the  soil  in  which  they  are  to  be  potted  may  be 
composed  of  rotted  sods,  taken  from  an  old  pasture, 
mixed  with  one-half  its  bulk  of  old,  well-decomposed 
barnyard  manure,  or  instead  of  sods  use  muck,  or  leaf 
mold  from  the  woods.  These  should  be  mixed  together 
at  least  six  months  before  using;  add  one-eighth  to  one- 
quarter  sand,  and  turn  all  over  until  it  is  thoroughly 
incorporated,  then  sift  it  all  through  a  coarse  sieve  before 
using.  Having  put  a  quantity  of  the  soil  upon  the  pot- 
ting bench,  which  should  be  in  the  propagating  house, 
and  provided  a  quantity  of  broken  pots  or  bricks  for 
drainage,  take  the  pots  containing  the  plants  from  the 
frames,  lay  them  on  their  side  and  give  them  a  sudden 
jar  with  the  hand,  so  as  to  loosen  the  sand  around  them ; 
then  draw  out  a  plant  carefully  and  hold  it  in  one  hand, 
while  with  the  other  you  place  a  small  piece  of  the  drain- 
age material  in  the  small  pot,  cover  it  with  soil,  then 
put  in  the  plant,  allowing  the  roots  to  spread  out  natur- 


PROPAGATION    BY  SINGLE    BUDS.  25 

ally ;  fill  in  soil  around  them  until  the  pots  are  full, 
without  covering  the  roots  where  they  join  the  stem 
more  than  half  an  inch  deep  ;  press  the  soil  down  firmly, 
but  not  so  hard  as  to  break  the  roots.  When  the  plants 
are  potted,  place  them  again  in  the  frames,  give  them 
water  to  settle  the  soil  about  their  roots,  and  keep  the 
air  somewhat  confined  for  a  few  days,  until  they  have 
become  well  established  in  the  pots,  when  a  little  more 
air  may  be  given  them.  Keep  the  temperature  at  85°  to 
95°  during  the  day,  and  60°  to  70°  at  night.  When  the 
plants  have  made  four  to  six  inches  of  stem  they  may  be 
taken  out  of  the  frames  and  placed  in  another  house, 
which,  if  they  are  to  remain  under  glass  during  the  sea- 
son, should  have  been  made  ready  for  their  reception. 

Some  propagators  do  not  use  frames  within  the 
house  at  all,  but  depend  entirely  upon  keeping  the  air 
moist  and  hofc,  as  well  as  sufficiently  confined,  by  the 
ordinary  methods  of  heating  and  ventilating  the  house. 
While  an  experienced  propagator  will  usually  succeed  in 
this  way,  for  those  who  have  not  had  experience  in  prop- 
agating the  frames  are  much  safer,  and  are  enough  bet- 
ter to  pay  the  extra  cost,  even  for  the  use  of  the  most 
skillful. 

When  the  plants  are  first  potted  in  the  small  pots 
they  will  require  so  much  more  room  than  before,  that 
it  will  often  be  found  inconvenient  to  furnish  frames 
enough  to  hold  them ;  in  such  cases  they  may  be  set 
upon  shelves  in  the  open  house,  and  they  will  do  well  in 
such  a  position  if  care  is  given  in  keeping  the  atmos- 
phere within  the  house  moist  and  warm,  as  well  as  in 
shading  the  plants  and  avoiding  direct  currents  of  cold 
air  from  the  outside  through  doors  or  when  ventilating 
the  house. 

To  get  good,  large,  and  strong  plants,  they  will 
require  repotting  at  least  three  times  during  the  summer. 
At  each  change  the  pots  used  should  be  increased  in  size 


26  THE   GRAPE   CULTURIST. 

about  two  inches.  The  same  compost  may  be  used  for 
each  repotting,  and  the  ball  of  earth  around  the  roots 
should  not  be  broken,  neither  should  the  plants  be 
placed  more  than  a  half  inch  deeper  than  before.  The 
proper  time  for  repotting  is  when  the  roots  have  reached 
the  sides  of  the  pot  and  become  crowded.  The  fresh 
soil  put  around  the  roots  should  be  pressed  in  firmly,  to 
make  it  of  the  same  density  as  the  ball  of  earth  contain- 
ing them.  The  plants  should  always  be  kept  tied  to 
stakes,  and  the  ends  of  side  shoots  pinched  off,  not 
allowing  more  than  two  additional  leaves  to  remain  on 
them  at  any  one  time.  The  plants  should  also  be 
allowed  plenty  of  room,  so  that  their  leaves  may  fully 
expand,  and  receive  plenty  of  light  and  air.  If  this  is 
not  attended  to  they  will  grow  tall  and  slender,  and 
often  fail  to  ripen  their  wood  ;  besides,  they  will  be  very 
likely  to  be  attacked  by  mildew.  The  plants  should 
receive  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun  from  the  time  they  are 
firmly  established  in  the  small  pots. 

To  hasten  the  ripening  of  the  plants,  toward  autumn 
pinch  off  the  top,  and  lower  the  temperature  by  giving 
them  more  air.  A  little  close  observation  during  the 
growth  of  the  plants  will  enable  the  propagator  to  judge 
of  their  wants,  and  the  proper  amount  of  water,  heat, 
etc.,  they  require.  Sometimes  it  will  be  necessary  to 
give  them  a  little  liquid  manure,  but  this  will  seldom  be 
required  if  the  compost  in  which  they  are  grown  is  prop- 
erly made  and  the  plants  allowed  good-sized  pots. 

The  propagation  of  our  hardy  varieties  from  single 
bud  cuttings  in  houses  is  not  now  practiced  as  exten- 
sively as  it  was  years  ago,  but  it  is  still  employed  for 
multiplying  new  and  scarce  sorts,  as  well  as  for  foreign 
varieties  raised  for  growing  in  graperies. 

Planting  in  Beds. — To  avoid  the  expense  of  a  suf- 
ficient number  of  pots  of  the  various  sizes  required  for 
repotting  a  large  number  of  plants  several  times  during 


PROPAGATION    BY   SINGLE    BUDS.  27 

the  season,  cheap  glass  structures,  without  artificial 
heat,  may  be  erected,  and  the  soil  in  them  made  rich, 
into  which  the  plants  may  be  put  directly  after  they 
have  become  well  rooted  in  the  small  pots  in  which  they 
are  placed  at  the  first  potting.  These  beds  may  be 
made  with  the  natural  soil  in  the  house,  or  they  may  be 
made  of  strong  plank  frames,  deep  enough  to  hold  a  foot 
of  soil,  and  elevated  some  two  feet  from  the  ground ;  in 
this  manner  the  roots  receive  more  heat  than  when 
planted  in  the  natural  soil.  The  same  care  will  be 
required,  the  same  watering,  staking,  etc.,  as  if  they 
were  in  pots.  Plants  of  superior  quality  may  be  grown 
in  this  manner,  with  much  less  expense  and  trouble  than 
attends  those  that  are  grown  in  pots  through  the  season. 

Single  Buds  in  Open  Air. — This  is  another  and 
cheaper  mode  than  the  two  preceding  methods,  as  the 
expense  is  but  trifling  after  the  plants  leave  the  propa- 
gating house.  But  when  vines  are  to  be  grown  in  this 
manner,  they  should  not  be  started  too  early,  for  the 
weather  must  have  become  warm  and  settled  before  they 
can  be  planted  out. 

The  method  is  as  follows :  When  the  vines  have 
been  repotted  into  the  small  pots  and  are  well  rooted, 
they  are  turned  out  and  planted  in  beds  previously  pre- 
pared, in  the  following  manner :  First  make  the  soil 
rich  and  deep,  and  have  it  thoroughly  pulverized  and 
raked  level  and  smooth  ;  then  lay  it  off  into  beds  three 
feet  wide,  and  the  required  length ;  drive  down  strong 
stakes  along  the  sides,  to  which  nail  boards  to  the  height 
of  two  feet  or  more,  then  across  the  top  nail  a  few 
strips  to  keep  all  firm.  Stretch  oiled  or  plain  muslin 
over  the  top,  for  shading  the  plant  when  first  set  out. 
When  all  is  ready,  take  the  plants  from  the  house  and 
turn  them  out  of  the  pots  (being  careful  not  to  break 
the  ball  of  earth  as  it  is  slipped  from  the  pots),  and 
plant  them  about  a  foot  apart  each  way  in  the  beds. 


fc8  THE   GEAPE   CULTURIST. 

Now  water  them,  and  place  the  muslin  over  them  when 
the  sun  shines,  for  at  least  one  week ;  by  this  time  they 
will  have  begun  to  extend  their  reots  into  the  fresh  soil, 
and  the  covering  may  now  be  removed ;  but  the  boards 
at  the  sides  should  remain  all  summer,  as  a  protection 
against  wind  and  severe  driving  rains.  Water  the  plants 
as  often  as  needed ;  cover  the  soil  with  two  or  three 
inches  of  mulch ;  clean  straw,  hay  or  leaves  are  good, 
and  perhaps  the  best  for  this  purpose.  Keep  the  plants 
tied  to  stakes,  etc. ,  as  already  directed.  It  is  no  unusual 
thing  for  plants,  grown  in  this  manner,  to  reach  the 
height  of  six  feet  the  first  season,  and  they  are  usually 
more  stocky  than  when  grown  all  the  season  under  glass. 

It  is  best  not  to  start  all  the  plants  in  the  propagat- 
ing house  at  one  time,  as  in  that  case  they  will  all  be 
ready  to  be  repotted  or  planted  out  at  the  same  time ; 
but  they  should  be  started  at  different  periods,  say  a 
week  or  ten  days  apart,  making  two  or  three  lots,  espe- 
cially if  there  is  a  large  quantity  to  be  grown.  Then 
the  different  stages  of  growth  will  enable  the  propagator 
to  attend  to  each  lot  as  its  growth  requires,  and  at  the 
proper  time.  When  the  plants  are  set  out  in  the  open 
ground,  as  I  have  described,  the  material  used  for  shad- 
ing the  first  lot  may  also  be  used  for  the  second,  and  so 
on,  instead  of  being  compelled  to  purchase  enough  to 
cover  all  at  one  time.  The  boards  for  protection  are 
sometimes  omitted,  as  well  as  the  shading,  and  in  some 
protected  situations  they  may  not  be  needed.  There  is 
also  a  great  difference  in  the  texture  of  the  leaves  in  the 
different  varieties,  some  being  capable  of  withstanding 
sun  and  strong  currents  of  wind  much  better  than 
others ;  yet  I  believe  all  will  grow  enough  better  to  pay 
for  the  expense  of  protection. 

Starting  in  Hotbeds. — The  main  object  in  mak- 
ing a  hotbed  is  to  produce  artificial  heat,  and  to  have 
this  heat  continue  uniformly  for  several  weeks.  For 


PROPAGATION    BY  SIKGLE    BUBS.  29 

this  purpose  various  materials  arc  used,  such  as  tan  bark, 
leaves,  hops  that  have  been  used  by  the  brewers,  etc.  ; 
in  fact,  almost  any  fibrous  material  may  be  used,  that 
will  continue  to  ferment  a  sufficient  time  to  produce  the 
amount  of  heat  necessary  to  cause  seeds  and  cuttings  to 
grow,  and  keep  the  soil  and  atmosphere  within  the  bed 
from  twenty  to  forty  degrees  above  the  freezing  point, 
even  if  the  atmosphere  without  is  far  below.  Besides 
the  materials  for  producing  this  heat,  we  must  have  a 
structure  called  hotbed  frames,  in  which  we  may  control 
it  when  generated.  These  are  made  of  planks  of  any 
required  size,  with  a  sloping  top  covered  with  sash. 
They  may  be  of  any  length  or  breadth,  but  they  are 
usually  four  to  six  feet  wide,  and  of  any  convenient 
length. 

The  sashes  are  made  without  cross-bars,  and  of  a 
length  sufficient  to  cover  the  frames  crosswise.  If  the 
frames  are  six  feet  wide,  then  the  sashes  may  be  six  feet 
long  and  four  feet  wide ;  but  if  the  frames  are  but  four 
feet  wide,  the  sash  may  be  three  by  four ;  these  are  con- 
venient sizes.  The  size  of  the  glass  is  immaterial,  but 
six-by-eight  and  eight-by-ten  are  sizes  commonly  used. 
As  there  are  no  cross-bars  to  the  sash,  each  pane  of 
glass  is  made  to  overlap  the  one  below  it  from  one-fourth 
to  one-half  an  inch,  like  the  shingles  on  a  house.  The 
more  the  glass  overlaps,  the  more  liable  it  is  to  be  broken 
by  the  freezing  of  the  water,  which  will  always  accumu- 
late, more  or  less,  between  the  panes.  The  glass  should 
be  bedded  in  soft  putty,  and  fastened  with  glaziers' 
points,  the  sash  well  painted ;  but  put  no  putty  upon 
the  upper  side  of  the  glass.  If  anything  is  needed  to 
stop  the  joints  between  the  edges  of  the  glass  and  sash, 
apply  thick  paint.  If  the  glass  is  well  bedded  in  putty, 
nothing  more  than  painting  the  upper  side  will  be 
required,  and  they  are  far  better  without  the  putty  than 
with  it. 


30  THE   GRAPE   CULTURIST. 

The  hotbed  may  be,  as  we  have  said,  composed  of 
various  materials,  but  in  any  case  they  should  be  pre- 
pared some  time  before  they  are  wanted  for  use.  When 
leaves  are  used  they  should  be  obtained  in  the  fall,  and 
placed  where  they  can  be  turned  over  several  times  dur- 
ing the  winter,  and  a  proper  degree  of  moisture  retained  ; 
and  other  materials  should  be  treated  in  the  same  way. 
Hops  may  often  be  obtained  from  the  breweries  in  a 
state  of  fermentation,  and  then  all  that  is  required  is  to 
immediately  put  them  into  a  proper  shape,  and  place 
the  frames  over  them.  But  such  materials  are  compar- 
atively little  used,  horse  manure  being  equal,  if  not 
superior,  to  any  other  for  the  purpose,  especially  when  a 
small  quantity  of  leaves  is  mixed  with  it.  It  is  not  nec- 
essary to  describe  the  mode  of  preparing  hotbeds  with 
other  materials,  as  the  process  is  similar  with  each. 
The  manure  should  be  taken  as  fresh  from  the  stable  as 
possible,  thrown  into  heaps  to  ferment,  and  worked  over 
several  times  ;  all  large,  coarse  lumps  broken  into  pieces, 
and  if  it  becomes  dry,  add  water  to  keep  it  from  becom- 
ing burnt  and  musty.  This  working  over  is  to  cause 
the  fermentation  to  act  upon  all  parts,  and  to  give  it  an 
even  texture  throughout.  If  leaves  can  be  had,  they 
should  be  mixed  with  the  manure  when  it  is  being 
worked  over.  One-fourth  to  one-half  the  quantity  may 
be  of  leaves. 

If  the  ground  is  quite  dry  upon  which  the  hotbed  is 
to  be  made  (and  such  a  situation  is  always  preferable  to 
one  that  is  wet),  make  an  excavation  one  foot  deep  and 
one  foot  larger  than  your  hotbed  frame  ;  then  spread  in 
the  manure  and  leaves  in  a  layer  about  six  inches  thick, 
and  beat  it  down  evenly  with  the  fork,  then  put  on 
another  layer  and  strike  it  down  in  the  same  way,  and 
so  on  until  you  have  at  least  two  feet  in  depth  ;  three 
feet  would  be  still  better.  By  spreading  the  manure  in 
layers,  and  pressing  each  down  separately,  a  more  uni- 


PEOPAGATTON    BY    SINGLE    BUDS.  31 

form  degree  of  texture  will  be  obtained,  and,  conse- 
quently, a  more  even  temperature  will  be  had  through- 
out the  bed.  Bank  up  on  the  outside  even  with  the  top 
of  the  frame  with  the  fermenting  manure,  so  as  to  assist 
in  keeping  out  cold  air,  as  well  as  to  prevent  the  escape 
of  the  heat  which  is  generated  within. 

Fig.  6  shows  a  hotbed  of  four  sashes  when  com- 
pleted. 

When  all  is  neatly  finished,  put  on  the  frames,  close 
the  sash,  and  keep  all  tight.  If  it  is  cold  weather,  cover 
the  sash  at  night,  and  in  cloudy  weather  also,  with  straw 


FIG.  6. 

mats  or  board  shutters,  so  as  to  allow  as  little  heat  to 
escape  as  possible.  So  soon  as  the  bed  has  become  warm 
and  the  steam  begins  to  rise,  which  will  usually  be  in 
four  to  six  days,  cover  the  whole  surface  of  the  manure 
within  the  frames  with  fine  soil  to  the  depth  of  four 
inches,  and  so  soon  as  this  is  warmed  through,  the  bed 
is  ready  for  use. 

The  pots  containing  the  buds — which  should  have 
been  prepared  several  days,  or  even  weeks,  previous,  and 


32  THE  GEAPE   CULTUB1ST. 

have  been  kept  in  the  cellar  or  some  convenient  place 
away  from  the  frost — may  now  be  plunged  into  the  soil, 
nearly  or  quite  down  to  the  manure.  The  buds,  or  cut- 
tings as  they  are  called,  should  be  made  in  the  same 
manner  and  potted  in  the  sand,  as  recommended  for  the 
propagating  house. 

Our  main  object  now  is  the  same  as  before ;  that  is, 
by  the  assistance  of  bottom  heat  to  excite  the  roots  into 
growth  before  the  leaves;  therefore,  before  the  leaves' 
start,  admit  as  much  air  as  possible  without  cooling  the 
soil  or  causing  a  too  great  waste  of  heat.  "Head  cool, 
but  feet  warm,"  is  applicable  here,  for  the  first  week  or 
two ;  but  so  soon  as  the  buds  push  above  ground,  then 
the  air  should  be  kept  more  confined,  to  prevent  a  too 
great  evaporation  from  the  leaves  as  they  expand.  The 
same  care  in  regard  to  watering  should  be  given  as  when 
grown  in  the  propagating  house ;  also  shade  the  young 
plants  in  a  similar  manner.  We  do  not  want  to  exclude 
light  so  much  as  we  do  to  avoid  the  direct  rays  of  the 
sun,  while  the  leaves  are  small  and  the  plants  are  form- 
ing roots.  Give  the  plants  air  by  lifting  one  end  of  the 
sash  a  few  inches  whenever  the  weather  is  fine,  and  .the 
thermometer  goes  above  90°  or  95°.  The  atmosphere 
should  be  constantly  humid,  but  do  not  so  saturate  the 
soil  as  to  cause  the  plants  to  rot  or  mildew ;  also  avoid 
sudden  changes  from  extreme  heat  to  cold,  for  a  change 
of  30°  to  40°  will  most  surely  give  a  check  to  the  growth, 
and  this  is  almost  certain  to  be  followed  by  disease.  So 
soon  as  the  plants  have  rooted  pot  them  off  into  two  or 
three  inch  pots,  and  place  them  again  in  the  frames. 

If  the  weather  has  become  quite  warm,  they  may  be 
placed  in  frames  where  there  is  no  bottom  heat.  The 
propagator  must  be  his  own  judge  in  this  matter,  only 
bear  in  mind  that  a  heat  of  70°  to  80°  must  be  main- 
tained to  insure  success ;  and  if  this  can  be  had  without 
bottom  heat,  then  the  latter  will  not  be  necessary. 


PROPAGATION    BY   SINGLE  BUDS.  33 

The  plants  may  be  kept  in  these  pots  until  they  are 
well  filled  with  roots,  then  they  may  be  planted  in  the 
open  ground  as  before  directed.  Some  of  the  hardy 
grapes,  such  as  Concord,  Hartford  Prolific,  etc.,  have 
such  a  thick  and  enduring  leaf  that  it  is  not  positively 
necessary  to  erect  frames  to  protect  them  when  first 
planted  out,  yet  even  these  will  be  benefited  by  so  doing. 

When  the  soil  in  which  the  young  vines  are  planted 
is  thoroughly  prepared  they  will  require  but  little  care 
during  the  summer,  except  to  keep  down  weeds,  and 
even  this  will  not  be  needed  if  they  receive  a  liberal 
mulch.  But  it  will  sometimes  be  necessary  to  water  the 
vines  in  locations  where  drouths  occur,  and  there  are 
but  few  sections  entirely  exempt ;  therefore  it  is  expedi- 
ent to  be  always  ready  for  such  an  event,  by  saving  an 
abundant  supply  of  rain  water,  if  possible,  and  where 
this  can  not  be  done,  let  there  be  casks  or  cisterns  made, 
in  which  well  or  spring  water  may  be  placed  to  become 
warm  by  the  time  it  may  be  wanted. 

Form  of  Single-bud  Cutting. — Thus  far  I  have 
mentioned  but  one  form  of  making  one-eye  cuttings,  yet 
the  shape  may  be  varied  to  suit  the  fancy  of  the  propa- 
gator, so  long  as  a  sufficient 
amount — but  not  too  much 
—wood  is  left  adhering  to 
the  bud.  Fig.  7  shows  one 
FIG.  7.  style ;  in  this  the  wood  is 

cut  off  about  three-quarters  of  an  inch  above  and  below 
the  bud,  and  the  wood  on  the  side  opposite  the  bud  is 
cut  away  deep  enough  to  expose  the  pith  the  whole 
length  of  the  cutting;  the  cutting  is  then  placed  in  the 
sand,  with  the  bud  upon  the  upper  side,  pressing  it 
down  horizontally,  as  it  is  shown  in  the  cut.  The 
advantage  claimed  for  cutting  away  the  wood  is,  that  it 
exposes  to  the  soil  a  greater  surface  of  alburnous  matter 
(or,  strictly  speaking,  the  cambium),  from  which  the 
roots  are  produced.  3 


34  THE  GRAPE  CULTUBIST. 

If  the  roots  from  vine  cuttings  were  dependent  upon 
the  exposed  cambium,  as  with  some  other  plants,  then 
the  superiority  claimed  might  be  conceded ;  but  such  is 
not  the  case,  as  a  greater  part  are  produced  from  around 
the  base  of  the  bud,  or  pushed  through  the  bark  from 
other  points  on  the  surface  of  the  cutting. 

In  Fig.  8  the  cutting  is  made  square  across,  close  at 
the  base,  or  just  under  the  bud,  leaving  about  an  inch 

and  a  half  of  wood 
above    it.       It    is 
f  _  placed  in  the  pots  at 

the  angle  shown,  the 
dotted  lines  indica- 
ting the  surface  of  the 
sand  above  the  bud. 
The  advantage  of 
this  form,  if  any,  is 
PIG-  8<  that  it  exposes  the 

cambium  to  the  soil  at  a  point  where  it  is  to  be  found  in 
the  greatest  abundance,  i.  e.,  at  or  near  the  base  of  a  bud. 
Fig.  9  is  another  form  of  making  the  cutting  £0  as 
to  expose  as  large  an  amount  of  cambium  to  the  soil  as 
possible ;  and  further,  to  have  a  portion  of  the  cutting 
go  deeper  into  the  soil  than  in  the  other  forms,  thereby 
avoiding  suffering  for  want  of  moisture,  if,  by  accident 
or  neglect,  the  soil  in  the  pot  should  become  dry  near 
the  surface,  which  would  destroy  the  cutting  if  made  in 
the  other  forms. 

The  cutting  is  placed  in  the  pots  in  a  sloping  posi- 
tion ;  the  dotted  line  above  the  bud  represents  the  sur- 
face of  the  sand.  The  only  objection  to  this  shape  is, 
that  being  made  thin  at  the  lower  end,  it  is  more  likely 
to  become  water-soaked  and  decay  than  if  left  with  more 
substance.  It  is,  however,  a  good  form,  and  has  sor^e 
advantages  over  several  of  the  others.  There  is  not  only 
a  great  diversity  of  opinion  in  regard  to  the  shape  of  the 


PKOPAGATION    BY   SINGLE   BUDS.  35 

cutting,  but  also  the  best  material  in  which  to  grow 
them.  Some  successful  propagators  use  leaf-mold  from 
the  woods,  others  loam,  charcoal  and  loam,  burnt  clay, 
etc.,  etc.,  but  none  of  the  materials  have  the  least  ad- 
vantage over  pure  sand,  in  which  to  start  the  cuttings, 
and  a  majority  of  propagators,  if  I  do  not  mistake,  use 
pure  sand  in  which  to  place  the  cuttings  until  they  form 
roots.  It  is  not  only  the  safest  material  for  the  inexperi- 
enced propagator,  but  it  is  all  that  is  required  by  cut- 
tings, in  the  way  of  soil,  until  they  are  in  a  condition  to 
absorb  food  through  their  roots.  Sometimes  it  is  well 
to  place  a  little  rich  soil  in  the  pots — an  inch  or  so  below 
the  cuttings — so  that 
when  the  roots  reach 
that  depth  they  will 
find  nutriment  to 
sustain  growth ;  in 
this  case  the  repot- 
ting may  be  deferred 
longer  than  would 
be  safe  without  such 
a  precaution.  This 
is  often  done  by  those 
who  expect  to  have  FIG-  9- 

more  work  on  hand  than  they  can  attend  to  at  the 
proper  time.  Circumstances  will  sometimes  occur  when 
it  is  not  convenient  to  start  the  cuttings  in  pots ;  if  so, 
they  may  be  put  into  shallow  boxes  or  directly  into  the 
frames,  but  when  this  is  done,  the  plank  used  in  mak- 
ing the  boxes  or  frames  should  be  new ;  if  not,  they 
should  be  coated  on  the  inside  with  ordinary  water  ce- 
ment, mixed  thin,  and  laid  on  with  a  brush,  or  covered 
with  slate.  Planks  that  have  been  used  one  season  will 
usually  have  begun  to  decay,  and  this  rotting  is  often 
the  source  of  a  fungus  that  will  spread  rapidly  through 
the  damp,  warm  sand,  and  this  is  very  likely  to  kill 


36  THE   GRAPE   OULTURIST. 

every  young  root  with  which  it  comes  in  contact.  I  have 
known  many  a  thousand  cuttings  to  be  destroyed  by 
fungi,  while  the  propagator  was  searching  for  a  cause  in 
another  direction. 

Single  bud  cuttings  are  sometimes  grown  in  open 
air  without  starting  by  artificial  heat.  They  should  be 
made  early  in  March  and  put  away  in  damp  sand  or 
moss,  so  that  the  callus  will  form  by  the  time  the 
weather  is  sufficiently  warm  to  plant  out.  Then  plant 
in  beds,  and  cover  about  an  inch  deep  with  soil,  and 
about  another  inch  of  mold  over  all.  Sawdust,  tan,  or 
common  moss  are  excellent  materials  for  this  purpose. 
In  dry  weather  water  the  same  as  if  they  were  under 
glass. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

CUTTINGS    OF    UNRIPE  WOOD. 

Although  the  grape  vine  may  be  readily  propagated 
by  cuttings  taken  from  the  vine  while  in  active  growth, 
circumstances  seldom  occur  when  it  is  judicious  to  do 
so.  Unless  more  than  ordinary  care  is  bestowed  upon 
the  young  vines  throughout  the  entire  season,  they  will 
not  only  be  feeble,  but  often  so  diseased  that  they  never 
become  strong  and  healthy,  though  at  first  they  may 
give  promise  of  being  so. 

During  the  prevalence  of  the  "grape  fever,"  some 
thirty  years  ago,  many  thousands  of  vines  were  annually 
raised  from  unripe  wood,  or  green  cuttings  as  they  are 
usually  termed,  but  it  is  questionable  if  the  purchasers 
of  such  vines  would  not  have  been  better  off,  on  the 
whole,  without,  than  with  them. 

That  good,  strong  and  healthy  vines  are  sometimes 
produced  from  green  cuttings,  I  admit,  but  also  assert 


CUTTINGS   OF  UNKIPE   WOOD. 


37 


that  the  great  majority  are  worthless.  The  facility  with 
which  vines  may  be  multiplied  in  this  way  is  a  great 
inducement,  to  those  who  are  disseminating  the  new 
and  rare  varieties,  to  use  it.  It  requires  no  more  skill 
than  propagating  from  single  buds ;  all  that  is  requisite 
is  to  have  a  propagating  house  (or  even  a  hotbed  will  do), 
where  a  steady  and  uniform  high  degree  of  heat  can  be 
maintained. 

The  mode  of  operation  is  as  follows :  Place  the 
vines  from  which  you  desire  to  propagate  in  pots,  or 
plant  them  in  the  ground 
within  the  propagating 
house,  and  make  the  soil 
in  which  they  are  planted 
very  rich,  so  that  they 
shall  not  want  for  food. 
When  the  vines  have  made 
a  new  growth  of  a  foot  or 
so,  take  off  the  young 
shoots,  or  a  portion  of 
each;  do  not  cut  back  all 
the  shoots  at  one  time,  as 
this  might  too  severely 
check  the  growth  of  the 
vine,  but  three-quarters  of  the  number  may  be  cut  back, 
or  entirely  removed,  without  doing  any  injury. 

The  young  shoots  that  have  been  selected  for  cut- 
tings should  be  divided  into  pieces  of  two  buds  each, 
cutting  them  off  just  below  a  bud;  the  leaf  adjoining 
the  lower  bud  should  be  removed,  but  the  upper  one 
must  be  left  entire.  Fig.  10  shows  the  appearance  of 
the  cutting  when  ready  for  planting ;  a  shows  the  surface 
of  the  soil  when  placed  in  the  pots.  Plant  these  cuttings 
in  six  or  eight  inch  pots  filled  with  sand,  putting  several 
cuttings  in  each,  but  not  crowding  them ;  press  the  sand 
down  firmly  around  the  cutting,  leaving  only  the  upper 


FIG.  10. 


38  THE   GRAPE   CULTURIST. 

leaf  and  bud  uncovered,  and  then  put  the  pots  within 
the  frames  in  the  same  manner  as  described  for  single 
eyes.  To  prevent  rapid  exhalation  from  the  leaves,  the 
atmosphere  in  the  frames  should  be  kept  a  little  more 
confined  than  for  ripe  wood  cuttings.  Ventilate  the 
frames  but  little  until  roots  are  produced.  Keep  the 
heat  from  80°  to  90°,  and  see  that  there  is  plenty  of 
moisture,  but  not  so  much  as  to  rot  the  cuttings  or  cause 
them  to  mildew.  Ventilation  will  usually  check  the  mil- 
dew, and  withholding  water  prevents  rotting. 

In  from  two  to  four  weeks,  if  successful,  the  cut- 
tings will  be  sufficiently  rooted  to  be  separated  and  put 
into  small  pots.  An  occasional  examination  of  the  cut- 
tings will  enable  the  propagator  to  determine  the  proper 
time  to  do  this.  When  the  roots  are  two  inches  in 
length  they  should  be  removed  from  the  large  pots  and 
placed  in  three  inch  pots,  filled  with  the  same  rich  com- 
post recommended  for  other  cuttings,  except  that  the 
soil  is  mixed  with  sand  enough  to  constitute  one-half 
its  bulk. 

After  being  potted  they  should  be  again  placed,  for 
a  few  days,  in  the  close  frames,  until  they  have  recov- 
ered from  the  check  received  in  potting.  The  plants 
may  now  be  treated  the  same  as  the  single-eye  cuttings, 
except,  if  you  wish  to  produce  good  plants,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  keep  them  under  glass  the  whole  season,  as 
the  wood  will  usually  fail  to  ripen  fully  in  the  open  air. 

When  but  few  plants  are  to  be  grown,  or  there  is 
no  lack  of  room,  they  may  be  started  in  the  following 
manner:  Take  an  eight-inch  pot  and  put  some  broken 
pieces  of  pots  or  coarse  gravel  in  the  bottom  for  drain- 
age, then  set  a  four  or  five-inch  pot  within  it — the  hole 
in  the  bottom  of  the  smaller  pot  being  stopped  tight ; 
fill  the  open  space  between  the  pots  with  sand,  in  \*  aich 
insert  one  row  of  cuttings  an  inch  and  a  half  or  two 
inches  apart,  letting  the  base  of  each  cutting  touch  the 


CUTTINGS   OF   UNRIPE   WOOD.  39 

inner  pot,  which  is  to  be  filled  with  water ;  enough  of 
this  will  percolate  through  the  pot  (if  it  is  of  the  or- 
dinary kind)  to  keep  the  sand  sufficiently  moist.  This 
is  a  safe  mode,  and  will  often  be  successful  when  all 
others  fail.  The  pots  are  to  be  kept  within  the  frames 
until  the  cuttings  are  rooted,  the  same  as  before.  Fig. 
11  shows  the  arrangement  of 
the  pots  ;/,/,/  are  the  cut- 
tings ;  c,  c,  sand  between  the 
pots ;  d,  water  in  inside  pot ; 
«,  clay  with  which  the  hole  in 
the  bottom  of  the  pot  is  closed  ; 
#,  drainage  in  the  outside  pot. 

The  wood  of  which  the 
cuttings  are  made  must  not  be 
too  young  or  too  old,  but  must  no.  n. 

be  taken  just  at  the  proper  time ;  that  is,  when  it  begins 
to  show  a  slight  firmness,  but  is  not  really  hard  nor  fully 
formed.  If  the  growth  of  wood  is  very  rapid,  it  is  well 
to  check  it  by  pinching  off  the  end  of  the  shoot  a  day  or 
two  before  it  is  wanted  for  use.  After  one  set  of  cut- 
tings has  been  taken  off,  another  set  will  soon  push  out ; 
these  are  to  be  removed  when  three  or  four  inches  long, 
cutting  them  close  up  to  the  main  stem,  so  as  to  preserve 
a  portion  of  the  enlarged  part  at  the  junction ;  also  cut 
off  an  inch  or  so  of  the  small  end  of  the  shoots ;  these 
will  usually  grow  more  readily  than  those  taken  at  first. 

The  young  growing  wood  from  vines  in  the  open  air 
may  be  used,  but  it  does  not  strike  root  so  readily,  or 
make  as  good  plants  as  that  from  vines  grown  under 
glass.  All  the  varieties  of  the  grape  may  be  grown  from 
green  cuttings,  but  some  root  more  readily  than  others, 
and  there  will  also  be  a  great  difference  in  growth  of  the 
plants,  some  starting  vigorously  and  continuing  so 
through  the  season,  while  others,  under  the  same  treat- 
ment, will  be  but  poor,  feeble  plants  at  the  best. 


4C  THE   GRAPE   CULTUEIST. 

The  propagator  should  always  decide  as  to  the  value 
of  a  particular  mode  of  operation  by  the  results.  The 
object  is  to  make  good  vines,  and  it  matters  little  how  it 
is  done,  provided  the  point  is  gained.  Some  growers 
will  produce  good  healthy  vines  from  both  green  and 
ripe  wood,  while  others  fail  with  either.  Therefore,  the 
best  method  is  that  which  produces  the  best  vines ;  but 
this  point  cannot  always  be  decided  by  the  size  or  appear- 
ance of  the  vines,  for  the  reason  that  a  general  inherent 
feebleness  is  often  hidden  while  the  plants  are  undergo- 
ing an  unnatural  forcing  process.  My  own  experience 
has  led  me  to  think  that  the  surest  way  to  produce  vines 
of  the  best  enduring  qualities,  is  to  use  none  but  the 
most  fully  developed  wood  ;  remembering,  however,  that 
developed  does  not  mean  an  overgrown,  forced  produc- 
tion, either  under  glass  or  in  the  open  air. 


CHAPTER  V. 

PROPAGATING   HOUSE. 

Propagating  hardy  vines  under  glass  for  general 
vineyard  purposes  is  now  seldom  practiced  ;  at  least,  not 
to  the  extent  that  it  was  a  few  years  ago,  and  the  greater 
part  of  those  used  are  raised  in  the  open  ground,  as 
described  in  a  succeeding  chapter.  But  in  instances 
where  it  may  be  necessary  to  rapidly  multiply  new  or 
very  rare  varieties,  a  well-arranged  propagating  house  will 
be  found  very  convenient  and  useful,  and  for  this  reason 
I  repeat  in  part  what  I  said  on  this  subject  in  the  earlier 
edition  of  this  work.  It  is  not  expected,  however,  that 
every  one  will  have  the  means  at  command,  nor  would  it 
always  be  expedient,  if  they  had,  to  go  to  the  expense  of 
building  an  extensive  propagating  house,  unless  it  were 


PROPAGATING    HOUSE.  41 

desirable  to  produce  a  large  number  of  vines,  and  for 
several  years  in  succession.  The  size  of  the  house  will 
depond  entirely  upon  the  number  of  plants  to  be  grown. 
If  only  a  few  thousand  are  to  be  produced,  then  only  a 
small  structure  will  be  required;  for  the  best  vines,  or 
the  best  plants  of  any  kind,  are  not  always  produced  in 
the  most  expensive  houses.  Many  a  careful  propagator 
annually  produces  his  few  thousands  of  superior  plants 
with  only  a  small  lean-to  house,  heated  with  a  common 
brick  furnace  and  flue,  and  these,  perhaps,  cf  his  own 
make.  And  while  this  same  propagator  might  tell  you 
that  he  would  prefer,  as  a  matter  of  convenience,  a  prop- 
agating house  with  all  the  modern  improvements,  still 
he  would  scarcely  admit  that  the  plants  produced  in  his 
email,  cheap  way,  were  any  more  liable  to  disease,  or  in 
any  way  inferior  to  those  grown  in  the  most  elegant  and 
expensive  house. 

Fig.  12  gives  an  interior  perspective  view  of  a  sec- 
tion of  a  first-class  propagating  house.  It  may  be  made 
of  almost  any  length  or  width  that  is  desired,  but 
eighteen  to  twenty-five  feet  is  the  usual  width  for  a 
span  roof. 

The  sides  of  the  house  may  be  of  brick  or  stone,  or 
of  two  thicknesses  of  plank,  one  nailed  on  each  side  of 
good  strong  posts  set  firmly  in  the  ground,  and  the  space 
between  filled  with  tan-bark  or  sawdust.  The  common 
cement  and  gravel  wall,  such  as  is  used  in  some  parts  of 
the  Country,  will  answer  the  purpose  as  well  as  any 
other,  and  in  many  places  would  be  most  economical. 
The  wall  should  be  low,  seldom  above  two  and  a  half 
feet,  on  the  top  of  which  put  a  two-foot  sash,  which  will 
make  the  eaves  of  the  house  four  and  one-half  feet  from 
the  ground.  Bank  up  the  wall  on  the  outside,  and  cover 
the  embankment  with  sods.  The  glass  should  be  of  the 
best  quality  of  plate  or  sheet.  This  is  preferable  to 
cheaper  kinds.  Embed  with  putty  and  fasten  with  gla- 


THE  GRAPE   CULTURIST. 


PROPAGATING    HOUSE.  43 

zier's  points,  but  put  no  putty  on  the  outside — use  noth- 
ing but  thick,  pure  white  lead  paint.  The  size  of  glass 
is  immaterial,  but  if  the  best  and  heaviest  is  used,  then 
the  panes  may  be  of  any  size,  from  8x10  up  to  10x16. 
The  engraving  shows  the  interior  arrangement  very 
minutely,  except  the  posts  which  will  be  necessary  for 
supporting  the  roof.  The  house  stands  its  longest  way 
north  and  south  ;  the  southern  end  is  of  glass,  which 
may  reach  to  the  ground,  or  stop  at  the  height  of  the 
frames.  At  the  north  end  is  the  furnace  room,  where 
also  the  potting  bench,  pots,  etc.,  may  be  kept.  The 
best  and  most  economical  mode  of  heating  a  large  house 
is  by  means  of  steam  or  hot  water.  For  this  purpose 
there  are  several  kinds  of  boilers  in  market,  many  of 
which  are  very  good. 

The  hot-water  pipes  should  lie  side  by  side,  instead 
of  one  over  the  other  as  they  are  usually  placed  in  ordi- 
nary greenhouses.  The  flow-pipe  passes  under  one  of 
the  side  frames,  thence  through  and  back  under  the 
middle  one,  and  then  under  the  frame  on  the  opposite 
side.  The  return  pipe  passes  back  along  by  its  side, 
both  lying  on  iron  rests  made  for  the  purpose.  This 
arrangement  gives  eight  pipes  the  whole  length  of  the 
house,  besides  the  elbows  and  the  few  feet  that  it  takes 
to  cross  the  end.  The  center  frame  has  four  pipes  under 
it,  while  the  side  frames  have  but  two. 

The  center  frame  may  be  used  for  starting  those 
varieties  that  are  the  most  difficult  to  strike,  or  the  pipes 
may  only  pass  under  the  two  outside  frames,  and  the 
center  one  be  used  for  the  plants  when  they  are  first 
placed  in  the  small  pots — or  the  pipes  may, pass  under 
the  center  frame  and  return  under  the  outside  ones, 
without  returning,  as  shown. 

If  the  house  is  twenty  or  more  feet  in  width,  then 
for  convenience  the  center  frame  should  be  double  the 
width  of  the  outside  ones,  and  in  that  case  the  four  pipes 


44  THE   GRAPE   CULTUKIST. 

will  be  needed  under  it  to  keep  its  temperature  equal  to 
the  others.  Again,  in  place  of  frames  through  the  cen- 
ter, a  table  may  take  its  place,  on  which  to  set  the  plan  ts 
after  they  become  sufficiently  rooted  not  to  need  so 
much  heat  or  so  confined  an  atmosphere  as  while  young. 

The  inside  frames  are  only  necessary  while  the  cut- 
tings are  rooting,  and  for  a  few  days  after  the  first  shift, 
but  they  are  indispensable  when  a  number  of  varieties 
are  to  be  grown,  for  the  air  cannot  be  kept  sufficiently 
confined  in  a  large  house  to  insure  success  with  all.  To 
be  sure,  there  are  varieties  that  will  grow  from  single- 
bud  cuttings  without  recourse  to  frames,  but  with  such 
as  the  Delaware,  which  seldom  shows  any  roots  until  the 
young  shoots  appear,  it  becomes  a  very  difficult  matter 
to  prevent  a  too  rapid  evaporation  from  the  young  leaves 
in  the  open  house.  If  this  takes  plac3  of  course  the 
cutting  dies,  for,  until  the  roots  are  produced,  the  young 
growth  is  supported  entirely  upon  the  alburnous  matter 
contained  in  the  cutting. 

The  frames  are  ventilated  by  raising  one  end  of  the 
sash,  as  shown.  They  should  be  made  one  foot  deep, 
and  of  good,  sound  plank.  The  pipes  must  be  entirely 
shut  in,  so  that  the  greatest  heat  in  the  house  will  be 
under  the  frames ;  but  there  should  be  small  doors 
placed  along  the  entire  length,  opening  into  the  passage 
ways,  which  may  be  opened  to  let  the  heat  escape  into 
the  house  when  necessary  to  raise  its  temperature,  or  to 
lower  that  under  the  frames.  The  passage  ways  between 
the  beds  should  not  be  less  than  two  and  one-half  feet 
wide,  and  three  feet  is  better.  The  frames  should  not 
be  over  four  feet  wide,  as  it  would  then  be  inconvenient 
to  reach  across  them.  A  house  eighteen  feet  wide  will 
allow  of  three  rows  of  frames,  and  two  passage  ways  of 
three  feet  each  ;  or  the  outside  frames  may  be  but  three 
feet  wide,  and  the  center  one,  as  it  can  be  reached  from 
both  sides,  may  be  six  feet. 


PROPAGATING    HOUSE. 


45 


4.6  THE   GKAPL   CULTUBIST. 

The  places  for  ventilating  the  house  may  also  be 
arranged  to  suit  the  convenience  or  fancy,  but  they 
should  be  mainly  at  the  top.  The  sashes  should  be 
made  in  two  sections — the  upper  one  much  shorter  than 
the  lower,  and  arranged  so  that  it  can  slide  down  over 
the  other,  and  leave  an  opening  at  the  peak,  as  shown. 
Or  the  sash  bars  may  be  continuous  from  sill  to  peak, 
with  alternate  sections  left  for  hinged  ventilation  ;  in 
fact,  there  is  no  end  to  the  modern  devices  for  ventila- 
tion of  houses  and  their  general  construction,  as  may  be 
found  in  such  modern  works  as  "Greenhouse  Construc- 
tion," by  L.  R.  Taft,  Orange  Judd  Co.,  N.  Y.,  which 
will,  of  course,  be  consulted  by  those  who  intend  erect- 
ing expensive  structures  of  this  kind.  The  short  per- 
pendicular sashes  at  the  sides  of  the  house  may  be  made 
so  that  they  can  be  opened  ;  but  this  will  seldom  be  nec- 
essary, for  if  the  upper  ones  are  opened  the  heat  will 
pass  off  rapidly,  and  sufficient  fresh  air  will  find  its  way 
into  the  house  through  the  small  openings,  of  which 
there  will  always  be  more  or  less.  There  are  hundreds 
of  methods  of  ventilating  glass  structures  ;  the  object  of 
all  is  the  same,  hut  these  I  have  mentioned  are  the  most 
simple  and  will  answer  every  purpose. 

The  slope  of  the  roof  should  be  at  an  angle  of  from 
35  to  45  degrees ;  the  one  shown  in  the  engraving  is  at 
an  angle  of  35  degrees,  or  very  nearly. 

A  Single-roofed  House. — The  single  roof,  or 
lean-to  house,  is  often  preferred,  by  propagators  in  the 
more  northern  States,  as  it  is  less  exposed  to  cold,  being 
frequently  built  against  a  sidehill  or  some  building; 
where  such  a  protection  is  not  convenient,  then  a  wall  is 
built  running  east  and  west,  or  nearly  so,  and  the  roof 
is  placed  against  this,  sloping  to  the  south. 

Fig.  13  shows  a  lean-to  house,  with  interior  arrange- 
ments similar  to  that  of  the  span-roofed  house.  The 
furnace  and  general  storeroom  is  built  against  the  north 


PROPAGATING    HOUSE.  4? 

side,  instead  of  at  the  end.  This  not  only  affords  a  pro- 
tection to  the  wall,  but  gives  a  good -sized  room  for  stor- 
ing the  compost,  sand,  etc.  Four  hot-water  pipes  pass 
the  whole  length  of  the  house,  as  shown.  The  boiler 
and  furnace  are  set  in  the  room  back  of  the  wall,  and 
the  pipes  pass  through  it  into  the  house.  The  chimney 
may  be  built  in  the  wall,  or  be  carried  up  by  its  side. 
When  brick  or  tile  are  used  for  flues,  then  a  brick  fur- 
nace is  made  in  the  wall,  the  greater  part  of  it  within 
the  house;  but  the  door  should  open  outside,  so  that 
when  opened  the  gas  from  the  fire  may  escape  into  the 
furnace  room.  The  furnace  should  be  placed  so  low 
that  the  flue  may  gradually  rise  from  it  to  the  point 
where  it  connects  with  the  chimney,  and  still  not  come 
too  near  the  bottom  of  the  cutting  frames.  If  the  fur- 
nace is  placed  with  its  top  level  with  the  surface  of  the 
ground  within  the  house,  and  the  flue  be  made  to  rise 
one  foot,  rather  abruptly,  as  it  leaves  the  furnace,  it  may 
then  be  carried  fifty  feet  with  not  more  than  six  inches 
rise,  and  still  it  will  have  sufficient  draft.  If  the  house 
is  fifty  feet  long,  the  flue  should  pass  under  the  frames 
at  the  front,  and  return  under  those  at  the  back,  the 
chimney  being  near  the  furnace. 

The  point  where  it  enters  the  chimney  should  be  at 
least  eighteen  inches  above  the  top  of  the  furnace.  Of 
course,  the  more  it  rises  the  more  rapidly  the  smoke  and 
heat  will  pass.  The  size  of  the  furnace  will  depend 
upon  the  size  of  the  house,  and  also  whether  coal  or 
wood  is  used. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

CUTTINGS  IN    OPEN  AIR. 

Success  in  growing  cuttings  in  the  open  air  is  often 
dependent  upon  the  proper  selection  and  preparation  of 
the  cutting  bed.  The  soil  may  be  loam,  sandy  loam,  or 
fine  muck,  with  an  admixture  of  sand — the  latter  is  one 
of  the  best,  provided  it  is  not  too  wet.  Any  soil  that  is 
retentive  of  moisture,  but  not  really  wet  or  sw;impy, 
will  answer  the  purpose. 

A  soil  at  least  eighteen  inches  deep  is  one  cf  the 
requisites  of  a  good  cutting  bed. 

If  the  soil  is  naturally  heavy  and  compact,  a  1  iberal 
quantity  of  sand,  charcoal,  or  fibrous  muck  should  be 
applied  to  lighten  it,  else  it  will  become  too  hard  and 
dry  in  summer,  and  the  cuttings  will  suffer  in  conse- 
quence. A  rich  soil  is  also  indispensable,  for  it  is  neces- 
sary that  the  cuttings  should  make  a  vigorous  growth, 
that  they  may  ripen  a  large  portion  of  their  wood  and 
roots  early  in  the  season.  This  they  can  not  do  without 
a  proper  supply  of  food.  But  no  fresh  unfermented 
manure  should  be  mixed  with  the  soil,  though  it  may 
sometimes  be  admissible  upon  the  surface  after  the  cut- 
tings are  planted. 

If  the  soil  is  not  naturally  rich  a  liberal  quantity 
(say  enough  to  cover  the  entire  surface  four  to  six  ir.ches 
deep)  of  old,  well-rotted  barnyard  manure,  or  a  compost 
made  of  manure  and  sods,  muck,  leaves,  or  some  similar 
materials,  may  be  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  soil  to  the 
depth  of  one  foot  or  more. 

The  cuttings  will  usually  produce  roots  from  the 
lower  end  first,  therefore  it  is  necessary  that  a  portion  of 


CUTTINGS    IN   OPEN  AIE.  49 

the  enriching  materials  should  be  placed  as  deep  in  the 
soil  as  the  roots  will  extend.  An  application  of  hard 
wood  ashes  will  often  be  found  very  beneficial.  It  is 
always  best  to  prepare  the  cutting  bed  in  the  fall,  so 
that  all  the  materials  of  which  it  is  composed  may 
become  intermingled  by  spring. 

Time  to  Make  Cuttings. — In  this  latitude  the 
fall  of  the  year,  soon  after  the  leaves  have  fallen,  is  the 
best  time  to  take  cuttings  from  the  vine,  but  where  the 
winters  are  mild  they  may  remain  on  the  vine  until  mid- 
winter, or  even  later,  without  injury. 

When  taken  from  the  vine,  the  wood  may  be  cut 
into  the  required  length,  or,  in  other  words,  the  cuttings 
may  be  made  and  put  away  in  moist  soil  in  the  cellar,  or 
buried  in  some  dry  place  in  the  open  ground,  or  the 
wood  may  be  put  away  entire,  and,  if  kept  moist,  the 
making  of  the  cuttings  deferred  until  spring. 

Selection  of  Cuttings. — Cuttings  should  be  made 
of  the  past  season's  growth — that  is,  shoots  that  have 
been  produced  during  the  summer  are  to  be  taken  for 
cuttings  in  the  fall.  These  are  called  cuttings  of  one- 
year-old  wood.  That  which  is  strong  and  vigorous  and 
well-ripened  is  the  best,  although  the  very  largest  does 
not  always  make  the  best  cuttings,  nor  does  it  root  so 
readily  as  that  which  is  of  medium  size.  All  soft, 
spongy,  and  unripened  wood  should  be  discarded,  as 
good  plants  are  produced  only  from  good,  healthy  wood. 

Form  of  Cutting. — There  is  as  great  a  variety  of 
opinion  among  cultivators  in  regard  to  making  long  cut- 
tings as  there  is  respecting  the  form  of  those  of  a  single 
bud.  They  are  made  of  various  lengths,  from  four  inches 
to  two  feet.  I  much  prefer  a  short  cutting  to  a  long 
one.  A  cutting  of  six  or  eight  inches  in  length,  when 
properly  planted,  will  make  as  good,  if  not  a  better 
plant,  than  one  of  twice  that  length.  The  following  is 
the  method  that  I  practice,  believing  it  to  be  the  best : 


50  THE    GEAPE   CULTUK1ST. 

About  the  last  of  November  or  the  first  of  December  I 
select  the  wood  for  cuttings,  and  with  a  pair  of  garden 
shears  cut  it  up  into  lengths  of  about  six 
inches,  leaving  not  less  than  two  buds 
upon  the  cutting.  If  the  wood  is  very 
short-jointed,  a  cutting  of  this  length 
will  have  three  or  four  buds  upon  it; 
if  so  they  are  all  the  better,  as  roots 
usually  start  from  each  bud,  but  are 
seldom  emitted  the  first  season  in  cut- 
tings grown  in  the  open  ground,  from 
the  stem  between  the  buds. 

With  a  sharp  knife  smooth  oft  the 
wood  close  up  to  the  base  of  the  lower 
bud,  and  cut  off  the  top  end  about  an 
inch  above  the  bud,  at  an  inclination, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  14,  which  gives  the 
form  of  a  two-bud  cutting. 

A  three-bud  cutting  is  the  same, 
with  an  additional  bud  between  the  two. 

When  the  cuttings  are  all  prepared, 
they  should  be  put  away  in  the  ground 
where  they  will  not  be  frozen  or  become 
too  wet.  I  usually  set  them  thickly  in 
a  shallow  trench,  then  cover  them  up, 
leaving  the  top  bud  just  above  the 
ground,  after  which  cover  all  up  with 
coarse  manure  to  keep  out  the  frost. 

So  soon  as  the  ground  is  settled  in 
spring,  fork  over  the  cutting-bed,  rake 
it  level  and  smooth,  then  draw  a  line 
across  it,  place  the  back  of  the  spade  to 
the  line  and  throw  out  the  soil,  leaving 
"FIG.  14.  a  trench  nearly  perpendicular  at  the 

side  next  to  the  line,  and  a  little  deeper  than  the  cut- 
ting is  long;    then  set  the   cuttings  upright  in  this 


CUTTINGS   IN   OPEN   AIR. 


51 


trench,  unless  they  are  more  than  six  inches  long — if  so, 
incline  them — placing  them  about  three  or  four  inches 
apart,  and  so  deep  that  the  upper  bud  will  be  one  inch 
below  the  surface  of  the  soil.  Fig.  15  shows  the  posi- 
tion of  cuttings  in  the  trench  before  being  filled.  When 
the  row  is  filled  with  cuttings,  put  in  about  two  inches 
of  soil,  and  press  it  down  firmly  around  the  base  of  the 
cutting;  then  fill  up  the  trench  evenly,  just  covering 
the  upper  bud,  but  do  not  bury  it  too  deeply.  This  will 
leave  a  shallow  basin  of  an  inch  in  depth  the  whole 


FIG.  15. 

length  of  the  row — the  dotted  lines  in  Fig.  14,  above  the 
upper  bud,  show  the  form  in  which  this  basin  should  be 
left.  The  rows  of  cuttings  should  be  about  two  feet 
apart ;  the  soil  between  the  rows  will  be  about  two  inches 
higher  in  the  middle  than  at  the  rows.  The  time  re- 
quired for  the  cuttings  to  strike  root  and  push  into 
growth  will  vary  considerably.  If  there  is  much  rain 
and  the  weather  is  warm,  then  they  will  start  quite 
early ;  but  if  the  weather  is  cool  they  will  often  remain 
comparatively  dormant  until  June,  and  even  later  than 
this,  and  then  start  and  make  a  good  growth  by  fall. 
The  upper  buds  should  be  carefully  preserved  from 
injury,  because  it  is  from  these  that  the  shoots  are  usu- 
ally produced.  When  the  cuttings  have  made  a  growth 
of  four  or  five  inches,  the  ground  should  be  leveled  so 
that  the  upper  buds  on  the  cuttings  will  be  covered  an 


THE  GRAPE  CULTURIST. 


HOLTON.SC. N.Y. 
FI«.  16. 


CUTTINGS   IK   OPEN   AIR. 


53 


inch  or  more ;  then,  if  two  inches  of  mulch  are  spread 
over  the  ground  between  the  rows,  it  will  keep  it  moist 
and  promote  the  rooting  of  the  cuttings. 

Roots  from  the  lower  bud  will  usually  be  produced 
first,  but  soon  after  the  base  of  the  shoot  is  covered,  a 


FIG.  17. 

set  of  roots  will  issue  from  near  it,  which  will  assist  the 
growth. 

If  the  cuttings  make  a  good  growth — four  to  six  feet 
is  not  uncommon — they  should  be  tied  to  stakes,  as  this 
will  promote  the  ripening  of  the  wood.  Fig.  16  is  a  fair 


54  THE   GRAPE   CULTURIST. 

representation  of  a  two-eye  cutting  at  the  end  of  the 
first  year.  In  this  sketch  the  roots  and  top  are  neces- 
sarily shown  much  shorter,  in  proportion  to  the  length 
of  the  cutting,  than  they  were  on  the  plant  from  which 
the  drawing  was  made,  and  the  small  rootlets  cover  all 
the  roots,  while  they  are  here  represented  on  only  a  part. 
When  roots  have  these  small  appendages  attached  to 
them  in  abundance  they  are  called  fibrous-rooted. 

All  vines,  when  grown  in  congenial  soil,  will  have 
more  or  less  fibrous  roots,  for  it  is  through  these  that 
the  plant  derives  a  large  portion  of  its  food  from  the 
soil.  They  are  often  as  minute  as  those  shown  in  Fig. 
16,  and  they  are  soon  destroyed  if  exposed  to  the  air. 

When  cuttings  are  grown  in  the  above  manner  they 
are  readily  changed  into  one-eye  cuttings,  by  severing 
the  stem  just  under  the  upper  tier  of  roots ;  this  will 
give  as  good  a  one-eye  plant  as  though  it  were  grown 
under  glass  and  from  a  single  eye.  Fig.  17  shows  the 
plant  after  the  lower  section  of  the  roots  has  been 
removed. 

Growing  plants  in  this  way  involves  a  waste  of  buds, 
and,  moreover,  cuttings  are  not  so  certain  in  the  open  air 
as  in  the  propagating  house. 

It  is  very  difficult  to  make  some  varieties  grow  from 
cuttings  in  the  open  air,  while  others  do  so  readily. 
Some  kinds  require  more  moisture  than  others,  and,  if 
planted  in  a  situation  where  they  will  receive  an  abund- 
ant supply  throughout  the  season,  they  will  often  pro- 
duce as  strong  plants  as  the  others  will  in  ordinary  soil. 
It  is  also  sometimes  advisable,  with  those  kinds  that  do 
not  strike  root  readily,  to  plant  the  cuttings  in  the  fall 
in  the  same  manner  as  we  have  described  for  two-eye 
cuttings,  then  cover  the  bed  with  straw,  or  other  mate- 
rial, so  that  it  shall  not  freeze.  In  the  spring  remove 
the  covering,  leaving  enough  on  the  bed  to  keep  it  moist. 

Where  the  soil  used  for  the  cutting-bed  is  naturally 
dry  and  porous,  any  or  all  the  varieties  may  be  planted 


CUTTINGS   IN   OPEN   AIE.  55 

in  the  fall,  provided  they  are  protected  from  frost  dur- 
ing the  winter. 

That  there  are  certain  varieties  of 
the  grape  that  grow  more  readily  from 
cuttings  than  others,  in  the  open  air  as 
well  as  under  glass,  is  well  known  to 
every  vineyardist.  But  a  variety  that 
is  very  difficult  to  propagate  by  cut- 
tings in  the  open  air  in  one  section  of 
the  country,  may  grow  readily  in 
another.  Climate  has  much  to  do  in 
this  matter,  and  while  I  do  not  wish  to 
convey  the  idea  that  there  are  certain 
circumscribed  spots  where  a  particular 
kind  will  grow  from  cuttings  when  it 
will  not  do  so  elsewhere,  I  wish  to  re- 
mark that  the  same  skill  that  would 
produce  a  good  plant  of  some  varieties 
in  Alabama,  might  fail  to  produce  one 
in  New  York.  Knowing  this  to  be  the 
fact,  we  are  enabled  to  account  for  the 
diversity  of  opinion  often  expressed  by 
different  cultivators  coming  from 
widely  separated  sections  of  the  country, 
for  each  speaks  of  his  own  experience 
or  observation  in  his  own  particular 
locality ;  and  while  each  may  state  the 
truth,  their  stories  will  not  agree,  and 
one  may  almost  contradict  another. 

Mallet  Cuttings.— The  mallet 
cutting  is  usually  made  by  selecting 
only  the  lower  portion  of  the  one-year- 
old  cane,  and  by  cutting  through  the 
two-year-old  wood,  leaving  a  small  piece 
of  it  attached,  so  that  the  whole  resem- 
bles a  small  mallet.  Fig.  18  shows  the  FIG- 


56  THE   GRAPE   CULTUEIST. 

form  of  the  mallet  cutting.  Where  the  one-year  canes 
have  been  allowed  to  produce  side,  or  lateral  shoots, 
during  the  summer,  these  may  be  used  to  make  mallet 
cuttings,  the  head  of  the  mallet,  or  butt  of  the  cutting, 
being  composed  of  wood  of  the  same  age  as  that  of  the 
handle,  or  stem.  The  advantage  derived  from  the  pres- 
ence of  the  piece  of  old  wood  is  not,  as  is  sometimes 
stated,  because  roots  are  more  readily  produced  from 
it,  but  because  there  are  several  latent  buds  at  the  point 
of  junction  of  the  old  and  young  wood  ;  consequently,  a 
larger  deposit  of  cambium  than  where  there  is  but  a  sin- 
gle bud.  The  piece  of  old,  or  large  wood,  assists  in  pro- 
tecting these  buds  until  roots  are  produced. 

The  number  of  cuttings  that  can  be  obtained  from 
a  vine  is*  necessarily  but  few,  as  only  one  is  made  from 
each  cane — unless  laterals  are  used — and  it  will  depend 
very  much  upon  the  mode  of  training,  whether  it  will  do 
to  cut  away  the  old  wood  for  this  purpose.  The  cut- 
tings should  not  be  made  more  than  ten  or  twelve  inches 
long ;  they  are  sometimes  made  much  longer,  but  it  is 
unnecessary,  as  too  much  wood  will  often  prove  injurious. 

There  are  some  varieties  of  grapes,  for  instance,  the 
Delaware  and  Norton's  Virginia,  that  grow  much  more 
readily  from  mallet  cuttings  than  from  the  ordinary  two 
or  three-bud  cuttings.  If  the  laterals  have  been  allowed 
to  grow  unchecked,  and  have  produced  canes  of  consid- 
erable size,  they  may  be  used,  leaving  a  piece  of  the 
main  cane  attached  to  form  the  mallet. 

The  mallet  cutting  is,  perhaps,  the  most  ancient 
form  of  cutting.  The  Romans  made  their  cuttings  in 
this  manner,  and  they  were  called  malleolus,  from  the 
Latin  malleus;  hence  our  word  mallet.  The  French 
vineyardists,  in  some  instances,  still  adhere  to  this  form 
of  cutting,  and  with  them  they  are  called  crosetts. 

There  are  some  vineyardists  in  this  country  who,  to 
extend  their  vineyards,  depend  almost  entirely  upon  the 


CUTTINGS    IN  OPEN  AIE.  57 

few  cuttings  of  this  form  which  they  are  able  to  get  from 
their  vines,  and  there  is  no  doubt  but  that  excellent 
vines  may  be  grown  from  such  cuttings  ;  but  it  is  equally 
true  that  other  portions  of  the  vine  will,  with  proper 
care  (though  not  always  quite  as  readily),  make  vines 
equally  as  good. 

It  matters  little  what  form  of  cutting  is  adopted, 
nor  does  any  particular  portion  of  the  wood  possess  any 
superiority  over  another,  provided  it  is  thoroughly  ripe 
and  healthy.  The  requisites  are :  To  keep  its  vitality 
unimpaired  from  the  time  it  is  taken  from  the  vine  until 
it  is  planted,  then  give  the  cuttings  a  position  where 
they  will  secure  plenty  of  heat  and  moisture,  with  a  full 
supply  of  nutriment  to  sustain  them  when  they  begin 
growth. 

The  Callus  on  Cuttings. — A  callus  is  that  pecu- 
liar excrescence  which  is  usually  four  d  on  that  portion 
of  a  cutting  where  the  wood  has  beer>  exposed  by  sever- 
ing from  the  plant.  The  formation  of  the  callus  pre- 
cedes that  of  roots,  and  is  generally  taken  as  a  sign  that 
roots  are  about  to  be  produced.  But  it  must  not  be  sup- 
posed, because  the  cuttings  have  made  the  first  move, 
that  the  second  will  as  readily  follow  ;  because  there  are 
hundreds  of  plants,  the  cuttings  of  which,  packed  in 
damp  moss  in  a  warm  room,  will  become  well  callused 
over,  and  still  it  is  an  extremely  difficult  matter  to  make 
the  roots  grow  after  removal. 

Many  inexperienced  propagators  seem  to  think  that 
if  they  can  only  get  the  callus  to  form,  and  a  few  roots 
to  start,  the  cutting  is  a  sure  thing,  but  it  may  fail  later. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

LAYERING   THE   VINE. 

The  propagation  of  the  vine  by  layers  is  one  of  the 
most  certain  and  convenient  methods  in  use ;  and  while 
the  number  of  plants  to  be  obtained  from  a  given  quan- 
tity of  wood  is  not  so  great  as  in  the  other  methods,  yet 
the  size  of  a  one-year-old  plant  produced  by  layering  will 
far  exceed  that  produced  in  any  other  way. 

A  layer  is  a  cutting  which  is  left  attached  to  the 
parent  plant,  and  derives  nourishment  therefrom  until 
it  has  produced  new  roots  of  its  own.  Much  discussion 
has  taken  place  upon  this  subject  among  cultivators  of 
the  grape,  some  asserting  that  in  the  first  stages  of  the 
growth  of  the  layered  plant  it  was  entirely  dependent 
upon  the  parent  for  its  food;  consequently,  the  roots 
that  are  produced  later  in  the  season  from  the  layer 
itself  do  not  fully  ripen,  and  are  of  but  little  value  to 
the  young  plant  when  separated  from  the  parent.  For 
more  than  two  thousand  years  layers  have  been  recom- 
mended and  condemned  by  different  authors,  and  all 
have  some  plausibility  in  their  arguments.  But  the 
facts  are,  that,  when  properly  grown,  layers  make  as 
vigorous  and  healthy  plants  as  are  produced  in  any  other 
manner. 

When  vines  are  to  be  grown  expressly  for  layers, 
they  should  be  planted  six  or  eight  feet  apart,  in  very 
rich  soil,  as  the  object  will  be  to  get  a  large  growth  of 
wood  without  regard  to  fruit. 

The  vines,  when  planted,  should  be  cut  down  to  the 
ground,  or  within  a  few  inches  of  it,  and  only  one  cane 

58 


LAYERING   THE   VltfE.  59 

be  allowed  to  grow  the  first  season,  and  this  must  be 
kept  tied  to  a  stake.  In  the  fall  or  winter  this  should 
be  cut  back  to  within  three  or  four  buds  of  the  last  sea- 
son's growth ;  this  number  of  buds  is  left  to  guard 
against  accident,  but  only  two  are  to  be  allowed  to  grow. 

The  next  spring  the  two  buds  that  push  the  strong- 
est are  to  be  allowed  to  grow,  and  should  be  kept  tied  to 
the  stake  as  before.  If  the  vine  this,  the  second  season, 
grows  strong,  and  makes  a  growth  of  from  six  to  ten 
feet,  it  will  do  to  commence  layering  it  the  next  spring, 
at  which  time  it  will  be  in  its  third  season  after  plant- 
ing. But  if  it  should  not  produce  a  strong  growth, 
then  one  cane  should  be  cut  entirely  away,  and  the 
other  to  three  or  four  buds,  allowing  but  two  to  grow,  as 
before,  and  defer  the  layering  until  the  fourth  year. 
For  there  is  nothing  gained  by  taking  layers  from  a  vine 
until  it  is  strong  enough  to  make  good  plants.  But  so 
soon  as  the  vine  has  made  two  strong  canes  of  from  six 
to  ten  feet  long,  whether  it  be  the  second  or  third  year, 
it  may  be  layered.  Of  course,  vines  may  be  layered 
earlier,  or  as  soon  as  they  have  made  canes  one  or  two 
feet  long,  but  the  plants  produced  will  be  small  and  fee- 
ble, and  not  what  would  be  considered  first-class  plants. 

How  to  Layer  the  Vine. — If  the  wood  that  is  to 
be  cut  off  is  wanted  for  cuttings,  then  the  vine  may  be 
pruned  in  the  fall ;  if  not,  defer  the  pruning  until  the 
last  of  February  or  the  first  of  March.  Select  the  largest 
cane  for  the  layer ;  if  it  be  ten  feet  long  it  should  be  cut 
back  to  six  or  seven  feet,  but  if  not  so  long  then  cut  it 
back  still  more ;  then  cut  the  other  cane  down  to  within 
three  or  four  buds  of  its  base.  After  the  buds  begin  to 
swell  in  the  spring  (or  even  if  they  have  grown  an  inch 
or  two  it  is  no  matter),  layer  the  cane  in  the  following 
manner  :  Dig  a  trench  from  four  to  six  inches  deep,  six 
inches  wide,  and  of  a  sufficient  length  to  receive  the 
cane ;  now  bend  it  down  and  fasten  it  in  the  trench  by 


60 


THE   GRAPE   CULTUBIST. 


hooked  pegs,  or  by  laying  a  stone  or  two  upon  it.  The 
bottom  of  the  trench  should  be  level  and  the  vine  laid 
flat  in  the  bottom,  and  not  turned  up  at  the  end  as  is 
sometimes  recommended.  The  cane  may  be  bent  side- 
ways, in  a  circular  form,  and  it  will  be  a  benefit  to  it,  as 
it  will  cause  the  buds  to  push  more  evenly  than  if  laid 
straight,  but  that  portion  in  the  trench  should  still  be 
as  nearly  level  as  possible. 

Now  let  the  vine  remain  until  the  shoots  have  grown 
from  three  to  four  inches,  them  select  those  that  are 
wanted  and  break  off  all  others ;  those  that  are  allowed 
to  remain  should  be  as  evenly  distributed  as  possible 
through  the  entire  length  of  the  layer. 

Four  to  six  are  all  that  should  be  allowed  to  grow 
on  a  cane  six  or  seven  feet  long.  If  allowed  ^to  grow, 
every  bud  will  make  a  plant,  but  not 
a  good  one ;  the  less  number,  the  bet- 
ter they  will  be.  Fig.  19  shows  the 
layer  in  the  trench  after  the  superflu- 
ous shoots  are  removed,  also  the  roots 
as  they  will  appear  later  in  the  season ; 


FIG.  19. 


B,  c,  the  young  shoots  starting  from  the  buds  on  the 
main  stem.     The  first  roots  push  from  near  the  buds,  as 


LAYERING   THw    VTlJtfE.  61 


with  cuttings,  but  afterward  they  will  start  from  between 
the  buds. 

When  it  has  been  decided  what  shoots  shall  be 
allowed  to  remain,  then  good  stout  stakes  should  be  put 
down  by  the  side  of  each  ;  and  so  soon  as  the  shoots  are 
from  six  to  ten  inches  high,  they  should  be  tied  up. 
And  at  this  time  a  little  soil  should  be  drawn  into  the 
trench  ;  enough  to  cover  the  vine  an  inch  deep  will  be 
sufficient.  In  a  week  or  ten  days  an  inch  or  two  more 
may  be  put  on,  and  so  on  at  intervals  of  a  few  days,  or 
at  each  hoeing,  until  the  whole  trench  is  filled  up.  If 
it  is  filled  while  the  shoots  are  very  young,  it  will  cause 
the  part  below  ground  to  rot.  Each  of  the  young  canes 
should  be  kept  tied  to  the  stakes,  and  if  a  particular  one 
takes  the  lead  and  appropriates  too  much  of  the  sap  to 
itself,  it  should  be  checked  by  pinching  off  the  top. 

The  canes  nearest  the  parent  vine,  and  the  one  at 
the  extreme  end  of  the  layer,  will  usually  grow  much 
more  rapidly  than  those  between  ;  if  so,  they  should  be 
checked  before  they  have  gone  so  far  as  to  weaken  the 
other  plants. 

Hoe  the  ground  often  during  the  summer,  or  cover 
it  with  a  mulch  to  keep  down  the  weeds.  The  cane  that 
was  cut  down  to  three  or  four  buds  should  be  allowed  to 
produce  two  or  three  shoots  ;  these  are  to  be  tied  to  the 
stakes  shown  in  the  engraving.  Next  season  the  same 
operation  may  be  repeated,  and  if  the  vine  has  grown 
vei;y  strong,  two  canes  may  be  layered  instead  of  one. 
After  layers  have  been  taken  from  the  vines  two  or  three 
seasons  in  succession,  it  is  best  to  let  them  pass  over  one 
season  without  taking  any  layers  from  them,  for  if  lay- 
ered every  season  they  will  soon  become  exhausted. 
Any  vine  that  has  a  young  shoot  which  can  be  made  to 
reach  the  ground  may  be  layered,  but  it  is  not  advisable 
to  take  layers  from  vines  that  are  planted  for  fruiting. 

When  only  one  vine  is  wanted  from  a  plant,  then  a 
branch  may  be  bent  down  into  a  short  trench  in  the 


62  THE    GRAPE   CULTURIST. 

spring  or  fall,  and  covered  up  at  the  time,  leaving  only 
the  end  above  ground.  In  this  way  a  very  strong  vine 
will  be  produced  the  first  season. 

The  layers  may  be  separated  from  the  parent  vine 
at  the  end  of  the  first  season  or  the  spring  following.  In 
taking  them  off  cut  them  loose  from  the  stakes,  then 
lift  them,  using  a  fork  instead  of  a  spade,  and  proceed 
to  cut  them  apart.  First  cut  the  layer  close  up  to  the 
parent  vine,  and  then  cut  off  that  portion  that  was  above 
ground  and  has  no  roots  ;  the  next  cut  should  be  between 
the  first  and  second  upright  shoot  near  the  first,  and  so 
on  to  the  end,  leaving  those  roots  on  each  plant  below  it 
or  toward  the  parent  vine.  I  am  thus  particular  in 
showing  how  the  vine  should  be  separated,  because  I 
have  seen  layers  so  separated  that  the  roots  left  on  them 
were  nearer  the  top  end  of  the  layer  than  the  shoot  was, 
and  the  sap  would  have  to  reverse  its  course  and  descend 
the  layered  cane  to  reach  the  new  vine.  It  will  do  so 
sometimes,  but  not  readily.  Where  vines  have  been  cut 
down  quite  low,  or  from  any  cause  several  canes  have 
started  from  the  main  stem  near  the  ground,  these 
may  all  be  utilized  the  following  season  for  layers,  and 
if  quality  is  preferred  to  quantity,  then  each  cane  may 
be  bent  down  in  the  form  of  a  bow,  into  a  short  and 
shallow  trench,  and  only  a  foot  or  more  of  it  covered 
with  soil,  thereby  securing  only  one  strong  layer  from  a 
single  cane  instead  of  several,  as  shown  in  Fig.  19. 
Many  other  methods  are  practiced,  in  making  layers,  but 
I  think  those  described  are  the  best. 

There  is  one,  however,  which  has  lately  come  into 
use,  that  deserves  a  passing  notice.  It  is  that  of  making 
layers  of  the  green  wood  in  summer.  .  An  occasional 
good  vine  may  be  made  in  this  manner,  but,  upon  the 
whole,  the  practice  is  not  only  injurious  to  the  original 
vine,  but  the  plants  produced  in  this  manner  are  gener- 
ally feeble,  as  neither  roots  nor  wood  are  fully  matured  by 
the  time  they  have  to  be  separated  from  the  parent  vine. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

GRAFTING  THE   GRAPE. 

The  propagation  of  the  grape  vine  by  grafting  is 
probably  as  old  as  its  cultivation,  and  many  of  the  modes 
practiced  at  the  present  time  are  accurately  described  in 
most  of  the  ancient  works  on  gardening  and  agriculture. 
But  with  all  the  information  which  we  have  derived 
from  both  ancient  and  modern  authors,  it  still  seems  to 
be  generally  considered  a  rather  difficult,  if  not  uncer- 
tain method  of  propagation.  On  account  of  the  peculiar 
structure  of  the  wood  of  the  vine,  a  lasting  union  is  sel- 
dom obtained  when  grafted  above  ground,  and  is  far 
from  being  certain  even  when  grafted  below  the  surface 
by  the  ordinary  method.  When  we  compare  the  benefits 
to  be  derived  from  grafting  the  vine  with  grafting  the 
pear,  apple,  etc.,  it  appears  to  be  of  little  value,  because 
the  vine  may  be  readily  grown  from  cuttings  of  almost 
any  portion  of  the  wood,  while  the  latter  produce  roots 
from  cuttings  only  sparingly,  even  with  the  greatest  care 
and  under  the  most  favorable  circumstances,  but  they 
may  be  propagated  very  easily  by  grafting  and  budding. 
Thus  it  appears  that  nature  has  provided  a  way  for  the 
rapid  multiplication  of  every  species  and  variety  of 
plants,  but  she  has  left  it  to  man  to  discover  the  way 
i'.nd  means.  There  are  circumstances  constantly  occur- 
ring, under  which  it  would  be  quite  desirable  to  graft 
the  vine  ;  for  instance,  when  we  have  a  new  and  valuable 
variety  which  we  wish  to  multiply  as  rapidly  as  possible  ; 
to  do  this  we  must  produce  wood  for  the  purpose,  and  it' 
we  can  produce  wood  more  rapidly  by  grafting  than  by 

63 


64  THE  GRAPE  CCJLTUBIST. 

any  other  means  at  command,  then  it  becomes  very 
important  to  know  how  to  perform  the  operation  success- 
fully. There  are  usually,  in  every  garden  where  grapes 
are  grown,  inferior  varieties  which  it  is  desirable  to 
exchange  for  better,  and  if  we  employ  grafting  as  a 
method  of  propagation,  then  these  otherwise  worthless 
vines  may  become  valuable  as  stocks  on  which  to  graft 
better  kinds ;  and  if,  by  the  use  of  these,  we  can  make 
every  bud  to  produce  a  shoot  of  from  five  to  twenty  feet 
in  a  single  season,  of  larger  and  better  wood  than  we  can 
by  any  other  means,  and  that,  too,  without  the  aid  of 
any  artificial  heat,  it  becomes  very  important  to  know 
how  to  do  it.  Sometimes  it  would  be  desirable  to  change 
a  whole  vineyard  from  an  inferior  variety  to  a  new  and 
superior  one,  and  if  the  operation  is  judiciously  per- 
formed, it  can  be  successfully  done,  as  has  been  exten- 
sively practiced  of  late  years  in  France,  where  they  have 
used  the  strong  growing,  phylloxera-resisting  American 
species  as  stocks  upon  which  to  graft  the  more  suscep- 
tible but  better  wine  grapes  of  Europe,  and  the  time  may 
not  be  very  far  distant  when  this  will  have  to  be  prac- 
ticed in  California,  where  the  exotic  varieties  are  culti- 
vated almost  exclusively. 

Everyone  who  has  ever  read  the  European  works  on 
grape  culture,  and  especially  those  of  France,  must  have 
noticed  how  much  space  is  devoted  to  this  subject  of 
grafting,  and  it  would  not  be  at  all  difficult  to  gather 
enough  material  to  fill  a  half  dozen  large  volumes  on  this 
mode  of  propagating  the  vine.  But  when  all  these 
voluminous  essays  are  condensed  to  practical  limits,  the 
difference  consists  mainly  in  the  diversity  of  opinions  of 
their  authors  in  regard  to  the  time  and  mode  of  perform- 
ing the  operation  ;  and  the  success  of  the  operator,  with 
one  and  all,  probably  depends  more  upon  his  skill  in 
manipulation  than  in  anything  else. 

In  grafting  the  grape,  as  with  other  ligneous  plants, 
the  operator  may  vary  the  process  by  cutting  the  stock 


GRAFTING  THE  GRAP£.  65 

high  or  low,  square  across  or  at  various  angles,  also 
make  the  cleft  in  it  long  or  short,  deep  or  shallow,  also 
vary  the  length  of  the  cion,  leaving  upon  it  one,  two  or 
more  buds ;  but  so  long  as  he  keeps  within  certain  limits 
he  will  succeed  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  skill 
brought  to  bear  upon  the  operation.  In  the  earlier 
works  published  on  grape  culture  in  this  country,  as, 
for  instance,  those  of  Adlum,  Dufour  and  Loubat,  the 
descriptions  given  of  grafting  the  vine  were  mostly  cop- 
ied from  the  French  authors,  and  these,  in  turn,  fol- 
lowed earlier  writers,  especially  Columella,  a  celebrated 
Eoman  agriculturist,  who  flourished  in  the  first  century 
of  the  Christian  Era.  But  Columella  refers  to  still  more 
ancient  authors,  but  claims  that  a  great  improvement 
has  been  made  in  grafting  vines  in  his  day,  and  especially 
in  the  implements  used  in  the  work,  and  this  is  about 
all  that  we  can  honestly  claim  in  the  way  of  progress  in 
grafting  the  grape ;  for  while  our  knives,  chisels,  saws 
and  augurs  are  probably  made  after  more  artistic  mod- 
els, it  is  doubtful  if  they  are  better  in  material  or  tem- 
per than  those  in  use  two  thousand  years  ago. 

In  mild  climates,  like  those  of  Southern  Europe, 
California  and  our  Southern  States,  grafting  vines  may 
be  done  all  through  the  winter  months,  and  if  the  cions 
are  carefully  inserted  they  will  usually  become  united  to 
the  stock  by  the  time  the  sap  begins  to  flow  in  spring. 
This  idea  of  early  grafting  is  a  very  ancient  one,  and  the 
first  time  I  had  occasion  I  put  it  into  practice.  But  our 
climate  here  in  the  North  is  too  severe  to  risk  the  cions 
to  exposure  during  the  winter,  and  to  avoid  this  I 
adopted  the  following  mode  of  protection,  my  first  exper- 
iment extending  to  only  fifteen  vines,  but  every  cion 
united  and  made  a  most  vigorous  growth  the  following 
season  : 

In  the  fall  after  the  leaves  have  fallen,  and  any  time 
before  the  ground  is  frozen,  say  in  October,  November 
5 


60  THE   GEAPE   CULTUEIST. 

or  December,  varying  according  to  latitude,  dig  away 
the  soil  from  around  the  stock  (which  may  be  of  any 
size,  from  one-half  inch  to  two  inches  in  diameter)  to 
the  depth  of  four  to  six  inches,  or  on  a  level  with  the 
surface ;  then  cut  it  oif,  and  split  in  the  ordinary  man- 
ner for  cleft  grafting ;  make  the  graft  of  one  eye  with 
about  four  inches  of  wood,  and  insert  it  in  the  stock, 
being  careful  to  have  the  inner  bark  of  the  stock  and 
graft  meet,  then  tie  in  the  graft  by 
winding  around  the  stock  some 
bass-bark  or  strong  twine  enough  to 
hold  it  firmly  in  place.  Fig.  20 
shows  the  graft  inserted  and  ready 
for  tying.  Next,  throw  in  soil 
enough  to  fill  up  around  the  graft, 
leaving  the  bud  just  above  the  sur- 
face ;  then  put  a  flower-pot  (a  box 
will  answer  the  purpose)  inverted 
over  the  graft,  as  seen  in  Fig.  21 ; 
then  bank  up,  d,  d,  around  the 
flower-pot  to  the  top,  but  not  over 
it ;  now  put  on  some  straw,  e,  say 
six  inches  deep,  and  cover  the  earth, 
/,  over  all.  In  this  manner  the 
graft  is  perfectly  protected  against 
the  frost,  and  it  has  all  winter  to 
perfect  a  union  with  the  stock,  and 
by  spring  it  is  ready  to  grow.  It 
FIG-  20-  should  not  be  uncovered  until  the 

cold,  freezing  weather  is  over.  It  is  necessary  that  a 
box  or  flower-pot  should  be  placed  immediately  over  the 
graft,  so  that  when  it  is  uncovered  in  spring  the  graft 
will  not  be  disturbed  by  digging  down  to  uncover  it ; 
and  it  also  protects  the  graft  from  being  injured  by 
water  running  down  it  and  getting  in  between  the  graft 
and  the  stock.  I  have  sometimes  used  grafting  wax  for 


GRAFTING   THE   GRAPE. 


6? 


covering  the  junction  between  the  stock  and  graft,  but 
having  succeeded  just  as  well  wiLhout,  I  abandoned  its 
use ;  besides,  I  have  sometimes  noticed  that  the  wax 
injured  the  graft  when  it  came  in  contact  with  it. 
Grafting  clay  may  be  employed  with  safety,  but  I  do  not 
consider  it  necessary  to  use  anything  but  the  bass-matt, 
and  then  put  in  the  soil.  The  twine  or  bass-strings  will 
usually  become  so  weakened  during  the  winter  that  they 
will  give  away  when  the  stock  commences  to  grow. 
One-year-old  wood  should  be  used  for  grafts,  and  only 


FIG.  21. 

that  which  is  firm  and  well-ripened.  If  the  wood  is  very 
short-jointed,  the  grafts  may  be  of  two  buds  instead  of 
one,  but  usually  one  is  sufficient. 

Grafts  inserted  in  the  fall  in  this  manner  will  make 
almost  as  strong  a  growth  as  the  original  vine  would 
have  done  if  it  had  not  been  grafted  ;  besides,  the  opera- 
tion can  be  performed  at  a  season  when  there  is  usually 
not  so  much  business  as  in  spring,  and  it  requires  no 
more  skill  in  its  performance  than  other  modes  of  graft- 
ing. It  can  also  be  performed  at  any  time  during  the 
winter,  provided  the  ground  is  not  frozen.  But  I  pre- 


68  THE   GRAPE  CULTURIST. 

for  early  in  fall,  as  in  that  case  there  is  more  time  for 
the  union  to  take  place ;  besides,  the  sap  in  the  roots  of 
the  vine  remains  longer  in  the  fluid  state  in  the  fall  than 
in  the  top,  as  may  be  seen  by  examining  the  roots  after 
the  leaves  have  fallen,  and  when  no  sap  is  observable  in 
the  branches.  This  is  owing  to  the  fact  that  roots,  in  a 
great  measure,  are  out  of  reach  of  the  frost,  which  has 
checked  the  flow  of  sap  in  that  portion  of  the  vine  above 
ground.  All  the  roots  of  the  vine  are  seldom  in  a  per- 
fectly dormant  state,  consequently  the  sap  is  always  ready 
to  flow  upward  into  the  branches  whenever  they  are  not 
frozen.  The  vine,  as  well  as  nearly  all  woody  plants, 
continues  to  expand  its  buds  during  the  winter  months. 
And  if  there  were  no  such  action  as  this,  then  there 
would  be  no  production  of  new  fibers  and  callosities, 
which  every  practical  horticulturist  must  have  observed 
as  taking  place,  especially  upon  the  roots  of  trees  and 
plants  that  have  been  transplanted  in  the  fall.  These 
facts  led  me  to  try  the  grafting  of  the  grape  early  in  the 
fall,  and  the  results  have  been  all  that  I  could  wish ;  for 
when  the  grafts  have  been  properly  inserted  I  have  found 
them  in  the  spring,  without  an  exception,  to  be  firmly 
united  to  the  stock. 

Within  a  few  years  following  the  appearance  of  this 
mode  of  fall  grafting  of  the  grape  in  the  Grape  Culturist, 
I  received  many  reports,  and  from  various  sources,  some 
condemnatory,  while  others  recommended  it,  which  was 
not  unexpected,  because  similar  results  usually  follow 
any  of  the  many  forms  of  grafting  in  use  and  at  differ- 
ent seasons.  If  the  grape  is  to  be  grafted  for  the  pur- 
pose of  securing  continued  benefit  from  a  healthy,  strong 
root,  as,  for  instance,  when  employing  "phylloxera-re- 
sisting stocks,"  then  the  cions  should  always  be  inserted 
slightly,  if  at  all,  below  the  surface  of  the  ground ;  for 
if  placed  deeper  new  roots  are  likely  to  be  emitted  from 
the  cion,  and  when  this  occurs  the  original  stock  roots 


GRAFTING  THE  GRAPE. 


69 


are  likely  to  fail  to  produce  the  desired  results.  It  is 
natural  for  the  sap  to  flow  through  the  most  direct  and 
convenient  channel,  and  this  would  eventually  be  the 
new  surface  roots  emitted  from  the  cion.  Of  course,  it 
is  no  more  difficult  to  bank  earth  around  the  newly  set 
cion  than  to  dig  it  away  and  graft  below  the  surface ; 
consequently,  the  grafter  may  vary  the  operation  accord- 
in?  with  the  object  he  has  in  view. 


FIG.  22. 

When  there  is  a  scarcity  of  stocks  for  grafting,  an 
old  vine  may  be  layered,  as  shown  in  Fig.  19,  and  instead 
of  taking  up  the  layers  the  young  canes  may  be  grafted 
in  the  fall,  inserting  the  graft  as  near  the  layered  cane 
or  roots  as  practicable.  And  when  the  grafts  have  made 
one  season's  growth  they  may  be  taken  up  and  separated, 
or  be  again  layered  and  several  vines  produced  from 
each.  But  plants  produced  in  this  way  will,  when  re- 


70  THE   GRAPE   CULTURIST. 

planted,  throw  out  new  roots  from  the  cion  above  the 
point  of  junction  with  the  stock,  and  in  a  year  or  two 
the  original  root  will  usually  die,  and  the  plant  will  be 
no  better  than  one  raised  from  a  cutting  or  layer.  But 
in  grafting  the  one-year-old  canes  the  cleft  or  wedge- 
graft  should  not  be  used  unless  the  canes  have  grown 
very  strong,  and  are,  at  least,  five-eighths  of  an  inch  in 
diameter  ;  but  instead  of  it,  splice-graft  them  as  follows  : 
Select  one-year-old  wood  for  the  grafts,  as  near  the  same 
diameter  of  the  stock  as  possible  ;  cut  the  stock  obliquely 
upward  and  the  cion  downward,  with  a  corresponding 
inclination,  t;o  that  the  two  shall  fit  nicely  together,  care 
being  taken  that  the  bark  on  one  side,  at  least,  of  the 
graft  and  stock  shall  meet  exactly.  Fig.  22  shows  the 
manner  in  which  they  are  united.  Bind  them  snugly 
together,  and  proceed  to  cover,  etc.,  as  with  the  cleft- 
graft.  But  if  more  convenient,  the  small  stock  and 
cion  may  each  be  split,  to  form  a  tongue  on  each,  and 
these  fitted  together  as  in  the  ordinary  splice-graft  used 
on  small  pear  and  apple  stocks.  It  does  not  make  much 
difference  how  the  stock  and  cion  are  joined,  provided 
they  are  so  united  that  the  sap  can  flow  readily  up 
through  the  cells  of  the  wood.  One-year-old  well  rooted 
cuttings  may  be  employed  as  stocks,  where  it  is  desirable 
to  multiply  weak-growing  varieties,  or  those  which  do 
not  strike  root  readily  from  ripe  wood  cuttings.  The 
ci'ons  may  be  inserted,  as  shown  in  Fig.  22,  or  as  in 
Fig.  23. 

Sometimes  it  is  desirable  to  graft  a  whole  vineyard, 
and  if  the  vines  are  young  and  healthy  it  is  perfectly 
practicable  to  do  so ;  but  if  the  vines  are,  as  is  often  the 
case,  old,  stunted  and  diseased,  it  is  better  to  dig  them 
up  and  plant  new  ones.  Because,  if  very  large  and  old 
vines  are  cut  down  and  grafted,  a  large  portion  of  their 
roots  is  very  likely  to  die  in  consequence  of  the  severe 
check  they  receive  by  having  all  the  top  removed ;  and 


GKAFTING   THE   QKAPE. 


FIG.  23. 


72  THE    GRAPE  CULTUKIST. 

these  dead  and  decaying  roots  will  have  a  tendency  to 
convey  disease  to  the  whole  plant. 

The  time  generally  selected  for  grafting  the  vine  is 
early  in  spring,  before  the  vine  starts,  or  after  it  has 
started  and  made  a  growth  of  a  few  inches,  both  o± 
which  I  have  found  highly  objectionable ;  for  if  grafted 
early,  the  operation  must  be  performed  several  weeks 
before  the  vine  starts,  so  as  to  allow  the  graft  sufficient 
time  to  form  a  union  with  the  stock  before  the  latter 
starts,  or  else  the  excessive  flow  of  sap  will  drown  the 
graft.  This  early  grafting  is  very  difficult  in  a  northern 
latitude,  where  the  ground  thaws  out  only  a  very  few 
days  before  the  sap  begins  to  flow.  But  many  practical 
and  successful  vineyardists  graft  their  vines  in  late 
spring,  or  after  the  vines  have  made  a  growth  of  a  few 
inches ;  but  the  wood  used  for  the  cions  is  cut  in  win- 
ter and  stored  in  a  cold  and  moist  place  until  wanted. 
These  dormant  cions  are  inserted  in  the  crown  of  the 
stock  at  or  just  below  the  surface  of  the  ground,  all  of 
which  only  goes  to  show  that  success  in  grafting  the 
vine  depends  as  much  upon  the  skill  of  the  man  who 
performs  the  operation  as  in  the  manner  and  time  of 
doing  it. 

Inarching  Vines. — This  method  of  grafting  differs 
only  from  the  former  in  the  manner  of  manipulation. 
It  is  not  often  practiced  wii^  vines,  but  maybe  when- 
ever desirable,  as.  for  instance,  when  other  methods 
have  failed.  The  vine  to  be  multiplied  by  this  process 
should  be  either  planted  out,  near  the  vine  to  be  used  as 
a  stock,  or  grown  in  a  pot,  and  plunged  in  the  ground 
near  it  when  ready  to  perform  the  operation,  which  con- 
sists in  cutting  the  bark  and  a  thin  slice  of  wood  from 
the  two  canes  to  be  united,  and  then  bring  the  face  of 
the  two  wounds  together  and  bind  firmly  with  bass  or 
common  twine.  The  inarching  may  be  done  in  summer 
while  the  vines  are  growing,  or  when  both  are  dormant 


GRAFTING   THE   GEAPE.  73 

in  early  spring.  At  the  close  or  tnt;  season,  or  as  soon 
as  the  two  vines  have  become  united,  or  grown  together, 
the  inarched  vine  may  be  severed  just  below  the  point  of 
union,  and  the  stock  treated  as  usual  with  the  ordinary 
splice  or  cleft-grafted  vines. 

Herbaceous  Grafting. — This  term  is  applied  to 
the  various  methods  of  grafting  vines  while  they  are  in  a 
green,  or  growing  condition,  but  it  is  seldom  practiced 
in  the  vineyard  or  open  air.  Vines  grown  under  glass 
in  a  close,  warm  and  moist  atmosphere  may  be  grafted 
quite  successfully  by  this  mode,  but  in  the  open  it  is 
quite  different,  and  I  doubt  very  much  if  ft  can  be  prac- 
ticed with  any  degree  of  success,  although  a  few  cions 
may  occasionally  be  made  to  grow  if  kept  shaded  and 
freely  sprinkled  with  water. 

Grafting  Machines. — The  French  vineyardists 
seem  to  have  a  fondness  for  inventing  machines  for 
grafting  the  grape  and  other  ligneous  plants,  besides 
various  forms  of  gauges,  chisqls,  knives  and  other  imple- 
ments. Most  of  these  machines  are  for  inside  work,  and 
of  no  special  value  for  facilitating  grafting  in  the  vine- 
yard. The  best  thing  of  the  kind  that  I  have  seen  and 
tried  is  the  "Wagner"  saw  and  knife,  an  American 
invention  which  has  been  on  sale  for  some  fifteen  or 
more  years.  It  consists  of  two  small  saw  blades  set  in  a 
handle,  these  being  used  to  saw  a  cleft  in  the  severed 
stock  of  about  the  right  width  to  receive  the  cion. 
Another  part  of  the  machine  is  made  with  two  thin  knife 
blades  affixed  to  a  lever,  and  with  these  the  cion  is  cut 
or  shaved  to  the  requisite  size  to  fit  the  cleft  made  with 
the  saw  in  the  stock.  It  is  quite  an  ingenious  contriv- 
ance, and  practical  withal,  but  I  prefer  a  good  sharp 
knife,  chisel  and  wedge,  to  this  or  any  other  grafting  ma- 
chine that  I  have,  as  yet,  used  or  seen  described. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

HYBRIDIZING   AND   CROSSING. 

These  are  operations  that  should  demand  the  atten- 
tion of  every  one  who  undertakes  to  produce  new  varie- 
ties; for  when  artificially  performed,  improvements  are 
more  certain  than  if  we  depend  wholly  upon  the  natural 
variations  occurring  in  vines  grown  from  seeds,  which 
have  not  been  influenced  by  artificial  fertilizing. 

Many  of  our  best  varieties  of  grapes,  as  well  as  other 
fruits,  owe  their  superiority,  in  a  great  measure,  to  the 
careful  manner  in  which  the  flowers  of  the  parent  plant 
were  fertilized. 

The  two  words,  hybridizing  and  crossing,  are  used 
indiscriminately  by  many  writers  in  this  country,  who 
follow  the  European  custom  of  calling  every  plant  that 
shows  a  mixture  of  two  varieties  a  hybrid.  This  is  an 
error  which  we  should  avoid,  for  although  the  mode  of 
operation  in  producing  them  is,  in  both  instances,  pre- 
cisely the  same,  the  results  are  entirely  different. 

A  hybrid  grape,  properly  speaking,  is  a  mixture  of 
two  distinct  species,  not  of  two  varieties  of  the  same  spe- 
cies. For  instance,  if  we  should  take  a  Concord  grape, 
which  belongs  to  the  Vitis  labrusca  species,  and  the 
common  frost  grape  (Vitis  cordifolia),  and  by  fertilizing 
the  one  with  the  other,  produce  a  plant  with  the  charac- 
teristics of  both  parents,  we  should  then  have  a  proper 
hybrid.  But  if  we  should  fertilize  the  Isabella  with  the 
Concord,  we  would  have  a  cross  between  two  varieties  of 
the  same  species.  Hybridizing,  then,  is  the  mixing  of 
two  species,  and  crossing,  or  cross-breeding  (as  it  is 
termed),  is  the  mixing  of  two  varieties. 

74 


HYBKIDIZING    AND   CROSSING.  75 

True  hybrids  are  generally  forced  productions,  but 
cross  fertilizing  is  constantly  going  on  naturally  among 
nearly  all  cultivated  plants. 

During  the  last  few  y?ars  many  new  varieties  of 
grapes  have  been  brought  to  notice  that  are  claimed  to 
be  true  hybrids,  and;  doubtless,  many  of  them  are ;  but 
it  is  to  be  regretted,  for  the  cause  of  science,  that  nearly 
all  of  these  are,  in  part,  a  mixture  of  the  varieties  of 
Vitis  labrusca,  or  its  direct  offspring ;  for  of  all  the 
known  native  species,  this  is  the  most  variable,  produc- 
ing, of  itself,  without  being  fertilized  by  other  species  or 
varieties,  almost  every  conceivable  shape,  color  and  qual- 
ity of  fruit,  as  well  as  a  great  variety  in  leaf,  stem  and 
growth. 

I  think  that  I  may  safely  assert  that  until  some 
other  varieties  and  species  have  been  operated  upon  than 
those  heretofore  employed,  but  little  reliance  can  be 
placed  upon  the  assertions  that  are  constantly  being 
made  about  this  or  that  grape  being  a  true  hybrid. 

We  know  that  plants  in  a  state  of  nature  generally 
perpetuate  their  kinds  and  varieties  with  great  uni- 
formity. Yet  a  slight  change  is  sometimes  observed, 
and  it  has  been  upon  these  variations  that  pomologists 
and  florists  have  mainly  depended,  as  the  starting-point 
from  which  they  produce  their  innumerable  varieties. 

The  effect  produced,  by  change  of  soil  and  climate, 
upon  plants,  when  removed  from  their  native  habitats, 
has  long  been  observed,  and  their  variations  turned  to 
valuable  account.  Although  these  changes  have  been 
slow,  yet  by  their  careful  selection  and  preservation  we  are 
indebted  for  most  of  the  valuable  fruits  and  flowers  now 
in  cultivation. 

When  plants  are  removed  from  one  country  to 
another,  and  become  acclimated,  the  effects  of  this  change 
will  sometimes  show  itself  in  the  seedlings  grown  from 
them,  in  a  distinct  and  wonderful  manner,  so  much  so 


76  THE   GRAPE   CULTURIST. 

that  some  are  inclined  to  think  that  it  is  the  result  of 
accidental  hybridization.  These  phenomena  lead  many 
to  believe  that  they  have  a  hybrid  variety,  when  it  is 
only  a  variation  produced  by  natural  causes. 

If  we  have  a  number  of  fruits  which  reproduce 
themselves  without  variation,  it  is  not  positive  proof  that 
they  are  distinct  species.  But  it  only  goes  to  show  that 
the  natural  forces  of  the  plants  are  perfectly  balanced. 

We  see  this  principle  fully  illustrated  in  the  differ- 
ent breeds  of  cattle,  sheep,  etc,  which  are  descendants  of 
an  original  species,  but  are  now  divided  into  breeds,  as 
they  are  termed,  each  of  which  perpetuates  its  distinctive 
features,  unless  some  disturbing  cause  is  allowed  to 
interfere  with  their  natural  characteristics. 

The  case  is  very  similar  with  plants ;  for  we  often 
possess  varieties  that  have  all  their  functions  so  fixed 
and  balanced  that  they  reproduce  themselves  from  seed, 
generation  after  generation,  if  not  disturbed  by  being 
brought  into  close  contact  with  other  and  different  varie- 
ties of  the  same  species,  or  by  a  too  great  change  of  soil, 
culture  or  climate.  But  when  there  has  been  a  disturb- 
ance of  these  forces,  either  by  hybridizing  or  cultivation, 
and  the  functions  of  generation  have  been  disarranged, 
then  variation  begins,  and  it  becomes  difficult  to  decide 
whether  hybridizing  may  or  may  not  have  produced  this 
change. 

Suppose  we  fertilize  the  Concord  grape  with  the 
Sweet  Water,  and  the  result  is  a  white  variety ;  would 
the  simple  fact  of  its  being  white  be  a  proof  that  hybrid- 
izing had  been  accomplished  ?  No,  not  at  all ;  for  there 
have  been  plenty  of  white  varieties  raised  from  the  sesd 
of  the  Concord,  without  its  being  brought  in  contact 
with  any  white  kind.  I  have,  myself,  raised  many  white 
varieties  of  the  grape,  from  both  red  and  white  parent- 
age, without  any  attempt  having  'been  made  at  cross 
fertilizing,  the  change  in  color  being  due  to  the  natural 
variation,  or  the  effect  of  cultivation. 


HYBRIDIZING   AND   CROSSING.  77 

To  convince  ns  that  hybridization  has  actually  taken 
place,  we  need  to  see  more  than  one  of  the  prominent 
characteristics  of  both  parents  mixed  in  the  offspring. 

Again,  if  the  offspring  should  appear  to  be  only  a 
reproduction  of  the  mother  plant  without  variation,  it 
would  not  prove  that  the  hybridizing  process  had  not 
been  effectual.  But  it  would  only  show  that  there  was 
a  predominant  power  in  the  mother  plant  to  reproduce 
itself,  and  the  influence  which  the  artificial  fertilizing 
had  produced  was  entirely  hidden  in  the  present  genera- 
tion of  seedlings,  but  in  the  next  generation  it  might 
show  itself  distinctly. 

A  good  test  to  determine  whether  a  plant  is  a  true 
hybrid,  or  a  mixture  of  two  species,  is  to  plant  a  quan- 
tity of  its  seeds ;  a  portion  of  the  seedlings  thus  produced 
will  be  pretty  sure  to  show  more  prominently  than  others 
some  of  the  characteristics  of  one  or  the  other  of  the 
parents;  or,  in  other  words,  the  mixture  will  again 
separate,  and  a  part  will  return  each  to  its  original 
progenitor. 

There  are,  at  the  present  time,  a  very  large  number 
Ox  varieties  in  cultivation,  claimed  to  be,  and  probably 
some  are,  true  hybrids,  either  between  native  species,  or 
between  some  of  these  and  the  foreign  ( Vitis  vinifera) 
varieties,  but  those  which  show  the  least  signs  of  hy- 
bridity,  like  the  Eogers'  Hybrids,  have  thus  far  proved 
to  be  the  most  valuable,  and  while  this  may  be  rather 
discouraging  to  some  of  our  hybridists,  still  there  is  a 
chance  that  further  trials  may  yield  better  results. 

The  world  cares  but  little  how  a  thing  is  produced, 
or  where  it  is  from,  but  is  only  interested  in  the  results. 
Our  greatest  danger,  as  cultivators,  lies  in  the  fact  that 
partial  success  will  often  direct  our  thoughts  into  a 
region  of  false  theories,  from  which  it  is  difficult  to 
extricate  ourselves  without  unlearning  all  that  which  we 
have  previously  learned. 


78  THE   GBAPE    CULTURIST. 

In  all  our  efforts  at  hybridizing,  attention  should  be 
given  to  the  adaptation  of  the  plants  to  the  circumstances 
under  which  they  are  to  be  grown. 

If  it  is  our  object  to  produce  a  plant  for  this  lati- 
tude, we  should  avoid,  if  possible,  crossing  with  a  variety 
that  ripens  late,  or  is  otherwise  unsuitable.  The  aim, 
in  all  our  operations,  should  be  to  develop  those  quali- 
ties that  are  most  valuable,  and  discourage  those  that 
are  not;  for  these  inter-crossings  will  often  produce  an 
individual  variety  more  valuable  to  us  than  either  of  the 
parents.  Again,  we  may  cross  two  superior  varieties, 
and  the  result  will  be  a  kind  that  is  very  inferior.  But 
it  is  this  very  uncertainty  that  makes  the  operation  so 
fascinating.  If  we  could  know  exactly  what  the  results 
of  our  labor  would  be,  it  would  be  robbed  of  half  its 
charms. 

Mode  of  Operation. — That  we  may  proceed  un- 
derstandingly,  let  us  examine  the  blossoms  of  the  grape. 
But  in  the  accompanying  illustrations  the  flowers  are 
shown  much  enlarged.  Fig.  24  shows  a  flower 
as  it  is  expanding ;  A  shows  the  five  petals  coher- 
ing together,  as  they  are  lifted  up  and  cast  off  by 
the  stamens ;  the  petals  do  not  open,  as  in  the 
rose,  lily,  and  most  other  flowers,  but  drop  off 
without  expanding.  Fig.  25  shows  the  flower  FIG*  24- 
after  the  petals  are  gone ;  the  five  stamens  are  now  sur- 
rounding the  center  of  the  flower ;  the  little  knobs  at 
their  summits  (B)  are  called  anthers,  which 
produce  a  fine  dust,  called  pollen — this  is 
the  fertilizing  material  which  we  wish  to 
control.  Soon  after  the  flowers  open,  or  the 
falling  of  the  petals,  this  pollen  is  carried 
FIG.  25.  by  the  air  or  insects  to  the  stigma  (c),  which 
is  the  terminal  point  of  the  pistil,  placed  in  the  center  of 
the  flower.  The  surface  of  the  stigma  is  covered  with  a 
viscid  substance,  to  which  the  pollen  adheres;  and  so 


HYBRIDIZING   AND   CROSSING.  79 

soon  as  the  pollen  lodges  there  it  penetrates  the  stigma, 
and  passes  down  through  the  pistil  to  the  ovules,  or  un- 
developed seeds.  Now  this  operation  goes  on  without 
the  assistance  of  man,  in  all  perfect  flowering  varieties 
of  grapes ;  but  when  we  wish  to  cross  or  hybridize  a 
variety,  we  fertilize  its  stigma  with  the  pollen  from 
another  plant,  and  prevent  the  pollen  of  the  flower  fer- 
tilizing its  own  stigma.  To  do  this,  so  soon 
as  the  flowers  open  we  cut  off  the  anthers  with 
a  small  pair  of  scissors,  leaving  the  flower,  as 
seen  in  Fig.  26  (D,  stamens  with  the  anthers 
removed) ;  then  take  the  pollen  from  another 
no.  26.  variety,  and  dust  it  over  the  stigma.  This 
last  operation  is  performed  with  a  fine  camel's-hair 
pencil.  Suppose  we  wish  to  produce  a  cross  between  the 
Eaton  and  the  Delaware,  which  would  certainly  be  very 
desirable,  as  the  former  is  very  large  but  not  remarkably 
good,  while  the  latter  is  small  but  most  excellent ;  and 
suppose  we  choose  the  Eaton  for  the  fruiting  parent. 
Now,  it  is  very  desirable  that  they  should  come  into 
bloom  at  nearly  the  same  time ;  but  if  they  do  not,  it  is 
positively  necessary  that  the  one  to  be  fertilized  should 
be  the  last  to  bloom ;  for  the  pollen  can  be  kept  good 
for  a  few  days  by  cutting  off  the  anthers  when  in  a 
proper  condition,  putting  them  in  fUe,  soft  paper,  plac- 
ing the  whole  in  a  bottle,  and  corking  it  up  until 
wanted.  When  the  plant,  the  pistil  of  which  is  to  be 
fertilized,  comes  into  flower,  it  can  not  be  retarded,  and 
the  operation  must  be  performed  as  the  blossoms  open — 
although  the  period  of  blossoming  may  be  hastened  or 
retarded  if  the  vine  is  operated  upon  early  in  the  season 
for  that  purpose.  When  the  Eaton  shows  signs  of  flow- 
ering we  should  watch  it  closely,  and  so  soon  as  a  flower 
drops  its  petals  the  anthers  should  be  immediately  cut 
away,  and  some  pollen  from  the  Delaware  applied  to  the 
stigma.  Operate  upon  every  one  that  is  sufficiently 


80  THE   GRAPE   CTJLTURIST. 

advanced  to  admit  of  it,  and  then  inclose  the  entire 
bunch  in  a  gauze  bag,  to  prevent  insects  from  bringing 
pollen  from  other  flowers,  which  they  often  do,  and 
thereby  interfere  with  our  operations. 

If  a  portion  of  the  flowers  were  operated  upon,  say 
at  ten  o'clock  A.  M.,  by  three  or  four  in  the  afternoon 
another  set  will  be  open,  at  which  time  they  should  be 
fertilized  in  the  same  manner,  and  more  pollen  should 
also  be  applied  to  those  operated  upon  in  the  forenoon, 
as  they  may  not  have  absorbed  that  first  applied. 

The  flowers  do  not  open  all  at  one  time,  neither  is 
the  stigma  always  fertilized  by  the  first  application  of 
pollen ;  but  it  should  be  repeated  a  number  of  times 
during  several  days.  When  the  fertilization  has  been 
complete,  the  miniature  grapes  commence  swelling,  and 
their  growth  proceeds  rapidly. 

The  gauze  covering  should  be  removed  so  soon  as 
all  the  flowers  on  the  bunch  show  that  they  have  been 
fertilized.  Mark  the  bunch,  and  take  care  that  no  worm 
or  insect  injures  it  during  its  growth. 

It  is  best  to  thin  out  the  flowers  before  they  open ; 
cut  away  at  least  one-half  the  number,  as  it  will  be  more 
convenient  to  operate  upon  those  left.  Besides,  the  ber- 
ries will  have  more  room  to  grow,  and  will  be  larger  and 
mature  better  than  if  all  were  left  on. 

When  the  fruit  is  ripe,  gather  it,  and  proceed  the 
same  as  recommended  for  seedlings,  in  the  preceding 
chapter,  being  very  careful  not  to  make  your  seed  bed 
where  other  grape  seeds  may  have  been  scattered.  Many 
a  new  grape  owes  its  origin  to  seeds  that  were  sown  acci- 
dentally, and  which  grew  instead  of  the  ones  that  were 
planted  purposely.  In  fact,  a  very  large  proportion  of 
the  varieties  in  cultivation  are  really  accidental  seedlings, 
although  the  introducers  and  discoverers  may  have 
claimed  to  have  raised  them  from  carefully  hybridized 
flowers.  In  gardens  where  grapes  are  grown  and  eaten 


TRANSPLANTING.  81 

the  seeds  are  widely  scattered,  and  often  grow,  producing 
plants  in  great  numbers.  To  be  positive  about  results 
requires  more  than  ordinary  care  and  vigilance  on  the 
part  of  those  who  conduct  experiments,  in  the  produc- 
tion of  new  varieties,  whether  of  grapes  or  other  fruits. 


CHAPTER  X. 

TRANSPLANTING. 

Vines,  whether  grown  from  cuttings  in  the  open 
ground  or  under  glass,  will  often  require  one  season  of 
nursery  culture  before  being  planted  in  the  vineyard. 
In  such  cases  they  should  be  transplanted  from  the  cut- 
ting-bed, or,  if  grown  in  pots,  they  should  be  taken  out, 
the  earth  shaken  from  the  roots,  the  tops  and  roots 
shortened,  and  then  planted  in  the  nursery.  This  rule 
does  not  apply  to  well-grown  layers,  nor  to  extra  large 
one-year-old  cuttings,  but  only  to  such  vines  as  are  usu- 
ally produced  in  nurseries.  The  benefits  derived  from 
transplanting  young  vines  should  not  be  overlooked. 
Vines,  for  instance,  that  are  grown  in  pots,  generally 
have  a  mass  of  roots  that  are  crooked  and  distorted  by 
being  confined  in  a  small  space,  and  which  need  to  be 
separated,  their  ends  cut  off,  and  sometimes  a  portion  of 
them  taken  out  entirely,  and  then  planted  where  they 
can  have  special  care,  such  as  mulching,  watering,  etc., 
or  they  will  make  but  little  progress.  It  is  much  more 
convenient  to  do  this  when  planted  in  a  nursery  than 
when  scattered  over  a  vineyard.  Of  course,  when  refer- 
ring to  the  transplanting  of  vines  raised  in  pots,  ifc  is  not 
to  be  supposed  that  they  are  disturbed  while  growing, 
but  only  when  ripened  off  in  the  autumn  by  cold  and 
frost. 

6 


82  THE  GKAPE    CULTUEIST. 

A  largo  portion  of  the  vines  that  are  produced  from 
cuttings  in  the  open  air  will  have  but  few  roots,  and 
sometimes  these  will  be  nearly  destitute  of  small  branch- 
ing ones;  but  if  they  are  taken  up  and  have  their  roots 
shortened,  and  are  planted  again,  they  will  throw  out  a 
number  of  roots  from  each  of  the  original  ones.  The 
Eame  remarks  apply  to  one-bud  cuttings  in  open  air. 

But  the  most  important  result  derived  from  the 
nursery  culture  is,  that  the  vine  becomes  sufficiently 
strong  the  second  year  to  allow  it  to  be  placed  at  the 
proper  depth  when  planted  in  the  vineyard.  This  can- 
not be  done  with  small  one-year-old  plants  without  det- 
riment to  their  future  growth.  To  be  sure,  they  can  be 
planted  in  the  bottom  of  a  shallow  trench,  which  may 
be  left  open  and  not  filled  up  until  they  have  made  a 
strong  growth ;  but  this  will  require  extra  care  in  culti- 
vating ;  besides,  in  most  soils  these  trenches  would  have 
to  be  cleaned  out  after  every  heavy  shower.  Vines  may 
be  left  in  the  cutting-bed  until  they  are  two  years  old ; 
some  cultivators  do  so,  but  they  do  not  make  so  good 
plants  as  when  transplanted.  Sometimes  they  are  left 
there  for  several  years,  or  until  they  are  wanted  for 
planting  or  selling ;  but  such  plants  are  of  little  value 
after  the  second  year,  as  the  roots  are  usually  so  long 
that  it  is  impracticable  to  take  them  up  entire,  and  they 
are  cut  off,  leaving  all  the  fibrous  roots  in  the  ground, 
and  the  remaining  roots  are  so  old  that  they  possess  but 
little  power  to  produce  new  fibers.  Had  they  been  trans- 
planted they  would  have  been  furnished  with  an  abund- 
ance of  fibrous  ones.  For  these  and  other  reasons  I 
believe  it  is  better  to  transplant  the  one-year-old  vines 
from  the  cutting-beds  or  pots  to  the  nursery,  preparatory 
to  their  final  planting  in  the  vineyard.  The  soil  for  the 
nursery  should  be  in  the  highest  state  of  cultivation, 
containing  all  the  manurial  ingredients  necessary  for  the 
growth  of  the  vine,  in  addition  to  being  deep  and  thor- 


TRANSPLANTING.  83 

oughly  pulverized.  It  is  expected  that  while  the  young 
vines  are  in  the  nursery,  not  only  will  their  roots  be 
improved,  but  their  general  character  will  be  so  devel- 
oped, that  a  proper  selection  can  be  made  when  they  are 
transplanted  into  the  vineyard,  so  that  plants  of  equal 
vigor  may  be  planted  in  the  same  row,  and  every  vine 
upon  the  trellis  may  be  in  an  equal  state  of  forwardness, 
so  that  each  step  in  the  system  of  training  may  be  applied 
to  all  the  vines  at  the  same  time.  This  is  of  the  utmost 
importance,  if  anything  like  neatness  and  uniformity  is 
to  be  obtained  in  the  vineyard.  But  it  is  difficult  to 
secure  this  if  one-year-old  vines  are  planted,  as  at  that 
time  their  real  vigor  or  weakness  cannot  be  readily 
determined. 

To  prepare  the  vines  properly  for  the  vineyard,  they 
should  be  carefully  taken  up  in  the  fall  of  the  first  sea- 
son, and  "heeled-in"  in  a  cool  cellar  or  in  some  dry 
place  in  the  open  air.  They  should  remain  in  this  situa- 
tion until  spring,  when  the  ground  has  become  suffi- 
ciently dry  to  work  easily;  but  the  earlier  they  can  be 
planted,  provided  the  ground  is  in  suitable  condition, 
the  better.  When  taken  out  for  planting,  the  roots 
should  be  shortened  at  least  one-third,  and,  if  very  long 
— say  two  feet  or  more — then  they  may  be  cut  back  one- 
half,  as  it  will  not  only  be  more  convenient  to  plant 
them  if  shortened,  but  the  plants  will  be  benefited. 

The  plants  should  be  kept  under  cover  while  being 
trimmed,  and  the  roots  kept  moist  and  out  of  the  wind, 
which  would  soon  destroy  the  small  fibers  and  injure  the 
large  ones.  The  trench  in  which  the  vines  are  to  be 
planted  should  be  dug  before  the  vines  are  taken  into 
the  field. 

Draw  a  line  across  the  plot  of  ground  to  be  planted, 
and  dig  out  the  soil,  as  shown  in  Fig.  27  ;  this  is  eight- 
een inches  wide,  and  twelve  inches  on  one  side  and  five 
or  six  on  the  other,  the  bottom  being  slightly  oval ;  the 


84  THE  GKAPE  CULTURIST. 

soil  is  thrown  all  upon  one  side.  When  a  number  of 
trenches  are  ready,  bring  out  the  vines  and  plant  them 
in  the  following  manner :  Place  the  vine  in  the  trench 
upon  the  shallow  side,  and  spread  out  the  roots  toward 
the  opposite  side ;  then  throw  on  soil  enough  to  hold 
them  in  place,  and  cover  them  ;  then  put  in  another  vine 
in  the  same  way,  setting  them  so  far  apart  that  the  roots 
will  not  crowd ;  twelve  to  eighteen  inches  will  usually 
be  sufficient. 

One  person  may  plant,  while  another  fills  up  the 
trench.  When  one  trench  is  filled,  proceed  in  the  same 
way  with  another,  always  being  careful  to  have  each 
trench  dug  descending  the  same  way,  so  that  the  vines 
will  be  uniformly  on  either  the  right  or  left  side  of  the 


FIG.  27. 


trench.  Then  when  the  vines  are  to  be  taken  up  in  the 
fall,  it  will  only  be  necessary  to  examine  one  vine,  to 
ascertain  on  which  side  the  greater  part  of  its  roots  is  to 
be  found  ;  and  the  workmen  can  then  proceed  systemat- 
ically, for  they  will  know  just  where  to  dig,  and  thus  be 
able  to  avoid  injuring  the  roots.  The  rows  of  vines 
should  be  four  feet  apart,  which  gives  plenty  of  room  to 
work  between  them  during  the  season.  When  the  vines 
are  planted  and  the  ground  about  them  leveled  off 
evenly,  they  should  be  cut  down  close  to  the  ground, 
and  a  good  strong  stake  six  or  seven  feet  long  be  put  by 
each.  That  portion  of  the  stem  which  is  left  generally 
has  more  than  one  bud  upon  it,  each  of  which  may  push 
into  growth,  but  usually  only  the  upper  bud  will  start ; 


85 


but  if  more  than  on  3  should  grow,  the  strongest  only 
should  be  allowed  to  zernain,  and  when  this  has  grown  a 
few  inches  it  shou?l  be  tied  to  the  stake.  This  tying 
will  have  to  be  attended  to  at  least  once  a  week  through- 
out a  grsa-1'jr  portion  of  the  season.  The  laterals  also 
must  be  pir  ched  !xick  as  often  as  they  start,  leaving  one 


FIG.  28. 

leaf  the  first  time,  two  the  next,  and  so  on ;  but  usually 
two  stoppings  will  be  all  that  is  necessary. 

As  the  stopping,  or  pinching  off,  the  ends  of  the  lat- 
erals constitutes  a  greater  part  of  what  is  termed  summer 
pruning,  and  as  I  shall  have  occasion  to  refer  to  it  fre- 
quently in  the  following  pages,  the  reader  should  fully 
understand  what  is  meant  by  laterals,  and  their  mode  of 
treatment,  as  it  is  nearly  the  same  upon  vines  in  all 
stages  of  their  growth. 


86  THE  GRAPE  CULTURIST. 

Fig.  28,  E,  represents  a  portion  of  a  vine  in  summer, 
Now,  while  this  vine  is  growing,  it  produces  young 
branches  from  a  bud  near  the  axils  of  the  leaves  ;  that  is, 
from  that  point  where  the  leaves  join  the  main  stem  ;  / 
shows  one  of  these  young  branches,  which  is  called  a  lat- 
eral ;  at  the  point  where  this  lateral  unites  with  the 
main  stem  there  is  also  a  bud.  Now  if  this  lateral  were 
broken  out  entirely  it  might  injure  this  bud,  or  cause  it 
to  push  into  growth  ;  or  if  the  lateral  is  allowed  to  grow 
unchecked,  the  strength  of  the  vine  is  divided  into  so 
many  branches  that  none  of  them  will  become  strong  or 
well  ripened.  To  prevent  this,  and  retain  as  many 
leaves  for  the  elaboration  of  the  sap  as  is  necessary  for 
the  full  development  of  the  plant,  we  pinch  off,  with  the 
forefinger  and  thumb,  the  end  of  the  lateral  at  «,  when 
it  has  made  two  or  three  leaves,  taking  off  all  but  one 
leaf.  If  the  vine  is  growing  rapidly,  the  lateral  will 
start  again  and  produce  a  young  shoot  from  the  base  of 
this  leaf,  and  when  it  has  grown  a  few  inches  it  should 
be  pinched  off  at  #,  leaving  one  more  leaf ;  c  shows  where 
it  would  be  stopped  the  third  time,  should  it  be  neces- 
sary ;  d  shows  a  lateral  as  it  appears  when  first  starting. 
This  checking  the  growth  of  the  laterals  not  only  con- 
centrates the  strength  of  the  plant  into  the  main  cane, 
but  it  prevents  the  formation  of  a  large  number  of  small, 
thin  leaves,  which  are  of  no  benefit  to  the  plant,  and 
are,  of  themselves,  so  feeble  that  they  cannot  resist  dis- 
ease like  large  and  strong  ones,  consequently  they  are 
often  attacked  while  others  escape. 

While  I  am  fully  aware  of  the  fact  that  to  raise 
vines  in  this  way  is  rather  expensive,  and  would  scarcely 
yield  a  profit  to  the  propagator,  in  these  times  of  sharp 
competition  and  low  prices,  but  I  practiced  it  for  many 
years  with  the  best  results ;  but  vines  at  that  time  sold 
for  about  five  times  their  present  price.  I  still  claim 
that  it  is  the  proper  way  of  managing  young  vines, 


TRANSPLANTING.  87 

Although  it  may  not  be  a  profitable  one  under  all 
circumstances. 

The  usual  system  is  to  transplant  the  one-year-old 
vines  into  nursery  rows,  cutting  off  the  young  cane  to 
within  one  or  two  buds  of  its  base,  and  then  allow  the 
vines  to  grow  the  following  season  without  staking  or 
other  care  beyond  that  of  keeping  them  from  being 
smothered  by  weeds.  Good  strong  vines  are,  without 
doubt,  produced  in  this  way,  and  it  is,  perhaps,  the  only 
one  by  which  the  propagator  can  expect  to  secure  a  mod- 
erate compensation  for  his  labor. 

When  vines  have  grown  one  season  in  the  nursery 
they  ought  to  be  large  enough  to  be  transplanted  into 
the  vineyard ;  but  if  not,  then  they  should  be  cut  down 
to  within  one  or  two  buds  of  the  last  season's  growth, 
and  but  one  cane  allowed  to  grow,  as  in  the  year  before. 

If,  at  the  end  of  the  second  season  in  the  nursery, 
the  vines  have  not  made  a  growth  of  from  four  to  six 
feet,  then  we  may  rest  assured  that  there  is  something 
radically  wrong,  either  in  the  soil  or  the  vines,  and  they 
should  be  dug  up  and  either  discarded  altogether,  or 
trimmed  root  and  top,  planted  again  in  another  situa- 
tion, and  treated  the  same  as  one-year-old  plants.  But 
if  the  vines  have  made  a  vigorous  growth,  then  they  are 
ready  for  the  vineyard,  and  in  much  better  condition  for 
the  purpose  than  they  will  be  at  a  future  time.  Vines 
older  than  three  years  are  seldom  so  valuable  for  trans- 
planting as  those  younger. 

When  the  vines  have  arrived  at  the  proper  size  for 
vineyard  planting,  and  so  soon  as  the  leaves  have  fallen 
in  the  autumn,  they  should  be  carefully  taken  up  by 
means  of  the  garden  fork.  Kaise  the  roots  as  nearly 
entire  as  possible,  for  if  any  are  to  be  shortened  or  to  be 
cut  entirely  away  it  is  better  to  have  all  before  the  eye, 
so  that  a  selection  can  be  made,  than  to  do  it  with  the 
spade  and  wholly  by  Juince.  When  the  vines  are  taken 


88  THE   GRAPE   CULTURIST. 

up  they  may  be  immediately  planted  in  the  vineyard, 
provided  all  the  circumstances  connected  therewith  are 
favorable  ;  if  not,  they  should  be  put  away  in  the  ground, 
where  they  will  remain  safely  during  the  winter.  This 
latter  operation  is  called  heeling-in. 

Heeling-in.  —  The  usual  method  of  heeling-in 
plants,  or  laying  in  by  the  heel  (roots),  is  as  follows : 
Having  selected  a  dry  and  protected  situation,  a  trench 
is  made  in  the  soil  a  foot  or  more  deep,  and  wide  enough 
to  receive  the  roots  of  the  plants,  and  of  any  required 
length,  the  soil  being  thrown  out  upon  one  side.  The 
plants  are  then  set  thickly  together  in  the  trench,  with 
the  tops  in  a  sloping  direction,  and  against  the  bank  of 
soil  thrown  out  of  the  trench ;  another  trench  is  made 


FlG.  29. 

parallel  to  the  first,  and  the  soil  taken  from  it  is  thrown 
into  the  first,  covering  the  roots,  and  carefully  filling  in 
all  the  interstices  between  them.  Press  down  the  soil 
and  smooth  off  the  surface,  so  that  water  shall  not  lodge 
thereon.  When  one  trench  is  finished,  set  the  plants  in 
the  next,  and  proceed  as  before.  When  all  is  completed, 
dig  a  shallow  trench  around  the  whole,  so  as  to  carry  of 
the  water  and  keep  the  situation  dry. 

Fig.  29  shows  the  form  of  the  trenches  with  the 
embankment  against  which  the  vines  are  placed.  But. 
the  trenches  are  shown  at  a  considerable  distance  apart ; 
this,  of  course,  is  not  as  it  would  be  in  fact,  because  the 


SOIL   AND   SITUATION.  89 

first  trench  is  filled  up  in  making  the  second,  so  that  the 
trenches  are  actually  joined  together  side  by  side,  and 
the  vines  in  the  two  rows  need  not  be  more  than  a  foot 
apart.  The  entire  vine  may  be  covered,  if  desirable,  to 
protect  the  top  from  being  injured  by  cold  (the  dotted 
line  over  both  trenches,  in  Fig.  29,  shows  the  form  of 
the  embankment  when  the  whole  top  is  covered),  or  the 
vines  may  be  cut  back  before  they  are  heeled-in  ;  but  in 
either  case,  if  the  whole  vine  is  covered,  it  is  best  not  to 
do  it  too  early  in  the  fall,  nor  let  the  earth  remain  on 
too  long  in  the  spring.  It  is  also  best  to  assort  the  vines 
before  cutting  off  the  tops,  because  we  can  better  judge 
of  the  condition  of  the  roots  by  the  appearance  of  the 
tops  than  we  can  after  they  are  removed.  The  roots 
may  be  abundant  and  large,  yet  if  they  are  not  well 
ripened  they  are  of  but  little  value,  and  it  is  not  always 
an  easy  matter  to  determine  their  condition  when  coated 
with  soil,  as  they  usually  are  when  first  taken  from  the 
ground. 


CHAPTER  XI. 

SOIL  AND   SITUATION. 

When  we  take  into  consideration  the  wide  extent  of 
territory  in  which  the  grape  is  found  growing,  either  in 
its  wild  or  cultivated  state,  on  both  the  Eastern  and 
Western  continents,  we  may  well  ponder  over  the  oft- 
repeated  assertion,  that  the  vine  does  not  succeed  over 
the  whole  extent  of  any  country,  but  only  in  certain  cir- 
cumscribed localities ;  and  while  we  may  admit  its  truth, 
we  fail  to  comprehend  the  reasons  why  certain  soils  or 
sections  of  a  country  should  be  more  congenial  to  the 
vine  than  others.  Yet  the  fact  that  success  does  attend 
its  cultivation  in  particular  locations,  while  it  entirely 


90  THE   GRAPE   CULTURIST. 

fails  in  others,  is  patent  to  every  casual  observer. 
Whether  these  failures  are  attributable  to  the  injudicious 
selection  of  varieties,  or  to  the  mode  of  culture,  is  not 
always  easy  to  determine.  That  the  climate  of  both  the 
Northern  and  Southern  States,  as  well  as  that  portion  of 
the  United  States  lying  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  is 
congenial  to  the  vine,  is  abundantly  proved  by  the 
numerous  varieties  found  growing  wild  over  this  vast 
region  of  country.  No  doubt  there  are  particular  varie- 
ties which  are  better  suited  to  one  section  than  to  another, 
and  that  the  same  situation  and  exposure  that  would  be 
most  suitable  for  a  vineyard  at  the  South,  might  be  the 
worst  that  could  be  selected  for  the  North. 

A  situation  protected  from  the  cold  north  winds,  so 
as  to  insure  sufficient  heat  to  mature  the  fruit,  is  always 
desirable  in  a  cold  climate ;  but  in  a  hot  one  the  heat 
may  be  so  great  as  to  exhaust  the  powers  of  the  vine  by 
a  too  rapid  evaporation  from  its  leaves,  and  it  conse- 
quently fails. 

Nearly  all  the  writers  on  grape  culture  recommend 
the  declivities  of  hills  and  mountains  inclining  to  the 
south  as  the  best  exposure  for  a  vineyard ;  and  the  next 
m  order  are  the  southeast,  east,  southwest,  but  never  a 
north  or  a  full  western  exposure.  Virgil  said,  "Nor  let 
thy  vineyard  bend  toward  the  sun  when  setting,"  and 
these  words  are  as  applicable  at  the  present  time  as  they 
were  two  thousand  years  ago. 

A  full  southern  exposure  is,  no  doubt,  preferable  in 
the  Northern  States,  and  if  the  land  descends  to  the 
south,  so  much  the  better ;  but  if  very  steep,  it  will  cost 
more  to  prepare  and  keep  in  order  than  if  it  is  level. 
While  I  admit  that  a  sidehill  is  a  very  desirable  location 
for  a  vineyard,  I  am  quite  certain  that  there  are  many 
situations  equally  good  that  are  perfectly  level,  or 
nearly  so. 

I  have  often  observed  that  the  success  of  a  vineyard- 
ist  was  attributed  to  his  soil  and  situation,  but  never  to 


SOIL  AND   SITUATION.  91 

the  skill  of  the  cultivator  or  to  the  varieties  grown,  and 
this,  no  matter  whether  his  soil  was  light  or  heavy,  or 
the  situation  low  or  elevated.  Still,  we  know  that  soil 
and  situation  have  often  much  influence  upon  the  growth 
and  quality  of  the  fruit;  for  the  instances  of  such  an 
effect  being  produced  are  too  common  in  Europe,  at 
least,  to  allow  us  to  deny  its  truth. 

In  selecting  a  situation  for  a  vineyard,  all  the  sur- 
roundings should  be  closely  observed  and  taken  into 
account.  If  the  land  has  no  protection  from  the  north 
and  northwest,  see  what  the  facilities  are  for  supplying 
one  either  by  walls  or  a  belt  of  trees.  [If  trees  are  to 
be  used,  evergreens  are  best,  and  often  the  small  trees 
may  be  had  in  the  woods  near  by — we  now  refer  to  the 
Northern  States.]  See  that  the  land  is  sufficiently  ele- 
vated, thirty  to  forty  feet,  at  least,  above  streams  or 
ponds  of  water;  for,  if  near  the  level  of  small  bodies  of 
water,  the  situation  will  very  likely  be  subject  to  early 
and  late  frosts. 

Large  bodies  of  water  are  not  so  injurious  as  small ; 
in  fact,  they  are  usually  beneficial,  as  they  absorb  heat 
in  such  quantities  during  summer,  and  give  it  off  slowly 
in  the  fall;  this  affects  the  surrounding  country  very 
materially,  by  preventing  early  frosts.  In  spring,  the 
water  being  cold,  it  keeps  the  atmosphere  cool  for  quite 
a  distance  from  the  shore,  and  thereby  prevents  vegeta- 
tion starting  so  early  as  it  otherwise  would.  This  is 
probably  one  of  the  reasons  why  the  cultivation  of  the 
grape  has  been  so  largely  extended,  of  late  years,  along 
the  banks  of  the  Hudson,  and  around  the  smaller  inland 
lakes  of  Central  New  York,  and  on  the  southern  shores 
of  Lake  Ontario  and  Erie. 

When  the  soil  is  sandy  or  gravelly,  it  will  require  an 
application  of  some  organic  material,  either  in  the  form 
of  barnyard  manure,  muck  or  leaf-mold.  The  latter  two 
can  often  be  readily  obtained,  where  the  former,  in  any 


92  THE   GRAPE   CULTURIST. 

considerable  quantity,  would  be  out  of  the  question,  or 
would  be  so  expensive  that  it  would  very  much  lessen,  if 
not  entirely  absorb,  the  profits  of  the  vineyard.  There 
are  thousands  of  acres  of  sandy  or  gravelly  lands  in  the 
Eastern  States,  that  would  make  the  very  best  vineyards 
in  the  country,  simply  by  applying  the  enriching  mate- 
rials that  are  to  be  found  in  abundance  in  their  immedi- 
ate vicinity. 

Strange  to  say,  these  lands  are  now  considered  almost 
worthless,  because  barnyard,  6r  commercial  manures  (as 
they  are  called),  can  not  be  had  sufficiently  cheap  to 
make  them  profitable  for  cultivation.  While  a  sandy 
soil  may  not  naturally  produce  the  most  luxuriant 
growth,  it  is  certain  that  it  produces  fruit  of  the  richest 
quality.  Such  soils  are  moderately  favorable  to  the 
growth  of  the  vine,  are  easily  worked,  and  do  not  retain 
an  excess  of  moisture,  as  they  are  thoroughly  under- 
drained  by  nature. 

Volcanic,  granitic  and  limestone  soils  are  all  excel- 
lent for  vines,  and  as  these  are  usually  strong  and  rich 
they  need  but  little  more  than  a  slight  change  in  their 
mechanical  condition,  which  is  readily  accomplished  by 
plowing  or  trenching.  And  here  let  me  remark,  that 
very  often  the  mechanical  texture  of  the  soil  has  more  to 
do  with  success  or  failure,  than  do  the  ingredients  it 
contains. 

A  moderately  loose  and  friable  soil,  whether  it  be 
loam,  sand,  gravel,  or  the  debris  of  rocky  hillsides,  espe- 
cially if  of  a  calcareous  nature,  are  to  be  chosen,  in  pref- 
erence to  clay  or  muck.  These  latter  may  be  somewhat 
reclaimed  and  made  available  by  underdraining,  trench- 
ing, etc. ,  yet  in  a  majority  of  cases  they  prove  unsatis- 
factory in  the  end. 

The  soils  in  many  portions  of  the  Western  States, 
and  in  some  portions  of  the  others,  that  have  but  re- 
cently been  brought  under  cultivation,  need  no  addition 
of  fertilizing  materials. 


SOIL  AND  SITUATION.  93 

New  soils  are  to  be  preferred  to  those  that  have  long 
been  in  cultivation ;  for  it  is  extremely  difficult  to  supply 
artificially  to  worn-out  soils  the  lucking  materials,  in  a 
form  so  perfectly  adapted  to  the  wants  of  plants,  as  that 
which  they  originally  possessed.  I  am  well  aware  that 
some  agricultural  chemists  have  endeavored  to  impress 
upon  the  minds  of  cultivators  the  importance  of  analyz- 
ing the  soil,  in  order  to  ascertain  what  particular  ingre- 
dients it  may  need,  or  what  it  may  possess  in  too  great 
an  abundance  to  produce  any  particular  crop  or  plant  in 
perfection.  And  while  I  admit  that  chemists  may  some- 
times determine  when  there  is  an  excess  of  any  particu- 
lar constituent  (which  practical  men  will  often  do  by 
merely  looking  at  it),  I  have  yet  to  learn  that  analytical 
chemists  can  tell  how  little  of  any  particular  ingredient 
is  needed  for  any  particular  crop.  An  acre  contains 
43,560  square  feet  of  surface,  and  if  we  call  the  soil  a 
foot  deep  (and  there  are  few  plants  that  do  not  penetrate 
deeper  than  this),  then  there  will  be  that  number  of 
cubic  feet.  A  cube  foot  of  ordinary  soil  will  weigh  from. 
75  to  100  pounds — we  will  call  it  80  pounds — this  gives 
3,484,800  as  the  weight  of  an  acre  of  soil  one  foot  deep. 
There  are  circumstances  of  frequent  occurrence  when  a 
farmer,  by  adding  100  pounds  of  some  particular  mate- 
rial to  an  acre  of  grain,  will  increase  the  crop  twenty-five 
per  cent.  And  certainly  it  is  not  reasonable  to  suppose, 
nor  do  I  think  that  any  theorist  will  maintain,  that  it  is 
among  the  possibilities  of  chemical  science  to  detect  even 
a  trace  of  100  pounds  of  a  substance  in  3,484,800,  yet 
plants  will  detect  it. 

I  make  these  remarks  because  I  have  seen  men, 
when  looking  for  a  situation  on  which  to  plant  a  vine- 
yard, who  were  very  particular  to  have  the  soil  analyzed 
by  some  celebrated  chemist  before  they  would  purchase 
or  plant.  I  do  not  wish  to  depreciate  the  science  of 
agricultural  chemistry,  for  it  has  been  one  of  the  power- 


94  THE   GRAPE   CULTURIST. 

fill  auxiliaries  in  the  advancement  of  agriculture,  but  I 
would  warn  those  who  implicitly  rely  on  all  the  theories 
advanced,  that  they  may  ask  too  much  of  it,  and  thereby 
be  led  astray. 

Preparing  the  Soil. — The  manner  of  preparing 
the  ground  for  a  vineyard  depends  entirely  upon  the 
kind  of  Boil,  and  its  natural  condition.  If  it  is  heavy 
and  compact,  the  first  step  will  be  to  underdrain  it, 
either  with  stone  drains  or  tile. 

The  number  of  drains  required,  and  the  depth  to 
which  they  should  be  laid,  will  also  depend  somewhat 
upon  the  nature  of  the  soil  and  the  amount  of  water  to 
be  carried  off.  If  the  land  has  springs  in  it,  then  the 
drains  should  be  placed  so  as  to  cut  them  off  near  their 
source,  and  prevent,  as  much  as  possible,  the  excess  of 
water  from  spreading. 

But  soils  containing  springs,  except  they  be  grav- 
elly, should  be  avoided,  as  they  are,  perhaps,  the  most 
unsuitable  that  could  be  selected.  There  are  also  many 
soils  that  are  called  dry  that  should  be  underdrained, 
especially  if  they  are  inclined  to  heavy  loam  or  clay ;  not 
so  much  to  carry  off  the  water,  but  to  aerate  the  soil — 
that  is,  allow  the  air  to  penetrate  and  circulate  through 
it ;  for  air  always  carries  with  it  more  or  less  heat  and 
moisture,  and  if  the  mechanical  texture  of  the  soil  is 
such  as  to  readily  admit  air,  then  it  will  be  more  likely 
to  be  in  a  condition  to  transmit  moisture  rapidly,  but 
not  to  hold  a  superabundance. 

Drains  are  usually  placed  from  twenty  to  forty  feet 
apart,  and  three  to  four  feet  deep,  according  to  soils, 
situation,  and  the  crop  to  be  grown  on  the  land.  For 
vines  the  drains  should  be  placed  deeper  than  for  ordi- 
nary farm  crops,  else  the  roots  will  soon  penetrate  to 
and  fill  them.  To  describe  the  different  kinds  of  mate- 
rials used  in  draining  lands,  as  well  as  the  manner  of 
laying,  cost,  etc.,  would  occupy  too  much  of  our  space, 


SOIL  A.ND   SITUATION.  95 

and  we  must  refer  those  of  our  readers  who  wish  to  plant 
a  vineyard  upon  soils  that  require  draining,  to  those 
works  that  treat  particularly  on  this  subject. 

When  vines  are  to  be  planted  upon  steep  hillsides  or 
upon  stony  soils,  the  only  thorough  method  of  preparing 
the  soil  is  by  trenching.  This  is  done  by  digging  across 
the  field  to  be  planted  a  trench  two  feet  wide  and  two 
feet  deep — some  recommend  three  feet  or  more ;  but  if 
it  is  full  two  feet  it  will  generally  be  deep  enough,  and 
deeper  than  nine  out  of  ten  do  actually  trench  when 
they  say  three  feet.  After  the  soil  has  been  thrown  out 
upon  one  side  of  the  trench,  a  parallel  strip  of  soil,  of 
the  same  width  of  the  trench,  is  thrown  into  it,  and  by 
this  means  the  soil  is  inverted,  the  top,  or  surface  soil, 
being  placed  at  the  bottom,  and  in  this  way  one  trench 
is  dug  to  fill  up  another,  until  the  whole  field  is  trenched 
over.  The  soil  taken  from  the  first  trench  will,  conse- 
quently, remain  on  the  surface  above  the  level  of  the 
surrounding  soil,  and  there  is  no  soil  to  fill  the  trench 
last  made.  It  is  usual,  on  level  ground,  to  take  the  soil 
that  was  dug  out  from  the  first  trench  and  put  it  in  the 
last ;  but  to  do  this  is  often  inconvenient,  and  I  have 
yet  to  see  a  piece  of  land,  of  any  considerable  size,  with- 
out a  spot  somewhere  upon  it  where  the  soil  thrown  out 
of  the  first  trench  would  not  improve  it  by  filling  it  up ; 
and  if  the  trenching  is  finished  off  upon  the  higher  por- 
tion of  the  field,  the  trench  last  made  may  be  filled  up 
from  the  adjoining  soil  without  injuring  its  looks.  It 
does  not  matter  where  we  begin  to  trench,  whether  in 
the  middle  or  at  one  side  of  the  field. 

This  inverting  the  soil,  as  described,  is  the  simplest 
method  of  trenching,  and  is  as  efficient  as  any,  provided 
the  subsoil  is  not  of  a  character  so  inferior  that  it  will 
not  be  rendered  suited  to  the  growth  of  plants  by  being 
exposed  a  few  months  to  the  atmosphere.  The  subsoils 
of  light  sandy  soils  are  often  richer  than  the  surface,  as 


90  THE   GRAPE   CULTUBIST. 

a  great  portion  of  the  enriching  materials  that  have  been 
applied  to  the  surface  has  been  carried  down  by  the 
rains,  to  the  subsoil  below.  But  the  natural  richness  of 
the  subsoil  when  thrown  upon  the  surface  should  seldom 
be  depended  upon,  but  manure  must  be  added,  and 
thoroughly  incorporated  with  it  before  planting. 

There  are  many  circumstances  in  which  the  soil  may 
be  inverted  to  the  depth  of  two  feet  with  benefit — such 
as  sandy  or  light  loamy  soils,  or  where  manure  can  be 
liberally  applied,  and  a  year  be  given  for  the  ameliora- 
tion of  the  condition  of  the  subsoil  before  planting. 
Where  these  circumstances  do  not  exist,  it  is  best  not  to 
throw  the  subsoil  on  top,  but  to  mix  it  with  the  surface- 
soil  at  the  time  of  trenching. 

To  do  this  thoroughly  and  conveniently,  the  work- 
men should  stand  in  the  trench,  and  keep  an  open  space 
at  the  bottom  on  which  to  stand.  Then,  by  digging 
down  the  bank  and  throwing  it  over  against  the  opposite 
side,  break  up  the  lumps  at  the  same  time ;  the  soil  may 
not  only  be  thoroughly  pulverized,  but  the  surface-soil 
and  subsoil  will  become  thoroughly  intermingled. 

A  five-tined  spading-fork  is  the  best  implement  for 
trenching,  unless  the  soil  is  very  hard  and  stony ;  in  such 
cases  the  spade  and  pick  must  be  used. 

Although  trenching  is  indispensable  upon  very  hard 
and  stony  soils  and  upon  steep  sidehills,  on  level  situa- 
tions or  those  with  only  a  moderate  inclination  (and 
they  are  always  preferable)  the  plow  may  take  the  place 
of  the  spade,  and  it  will  very  much  lessen  the  expense  of 
preparation.  If  the  soil  is  stirred  to  the  depth  of  from 
fifteen  to  twenty  inches,  which  it  may  be  by  using  a  sub- 
soil plow,  it  will  be  as  deep  as  is  really  necessary  to 
insure  a  good  and  healthy  growth  of  vine. 

I  no  not  believe  that  it  is  desirable  to  encourage  the 
roots  to  penetrate  to  a  great  depth,  especially  in  a  north- 
ern climate,  for  when  the  roots  penetrate  deeply  they  do 


SOIL  AND  SITUATION.  97 

not  come  into  full  action  until  late  in  the  season,  and 
they  also  continue  to  act  late  in  the  autumn,  thus  pre- 
venting the  early  ripening  of  the  wood. 

If  the  soil  is  not  naturally  rich,  spread  the  manure 
upon  the  surface  before  plowing,  then  turn  it  under  with 
the  surface-plow,  and  let  the  subsoil  plow  follow  in  the 
same  furrow,  breaking  up  the  subsoil.  After  the  ground 
has  been  all  plowed  over  in  this  way,  then  cross-plow  it 
in  the  same  manner ;  this  will  insure  a  thorough  break- 
ing up  of  the  soil  and  mixing  of  the  manure  with  it. 
When  the  land  has  been  both  plowed  and  cross-plowed, 
if  it  is  then  gone  over  with  the  cultivator  it  will  still 
benefit  it  very  much,  as  it  will  break  to  pieces  the  lumps 
which  will  be  left  unbroken  after  even  the  most  thorough 
plowing. 

We  should  always  endeavor  to  make  thorough  work 
in  the  preparation  of  the  soil  before  planting  the  vine, 
for  it  is  not  an  ordinary  crop  that  we  are  to  plant,  nor 
one  that  necessitates  a  seed-time  to  each  harvest,  but  it 
is  one  that  requires  but  one  planting  in  a  lifetime,  yet  it, 
will  reward  us  with  many  harvests. 

There  are  very  few  soils  that  a  person  of  good  judg- 
ment will  select  that  will  need  any  further  preparation 
than  that  which  can  be  done  with  the  plow,  with  the 
addition,  perhaps,  of  underdraining.  Manures,  of 
course,  must  be  applied  where  the  soil  is  not  rich 
enough  without  them. 

Manures  and  their  Application. — The  quantity 
of  manure  required  by  an  acre,  to  fit  it  to  produce  a 
strong  and  healthy  growth  of  vine,  cannot  be  known 
until  the  fact  has  been  ascertained  by  actual  experiment 
upon  each  individual  piece  of  land,  and  the  vineyardist 
only  can  be  the  judge  in  the  matter.  But  it  is  always 
best  to  be  on  the  safe  side  and  put  on  enough,  because 
the  vine  will  soon  exhaust  the  surplus,  if  any;  while  if 
too  little  is  given,  a  complete  failure  may  be  the  result 
7 


98  THE   GEAPE   CULTURIST. 

As  vines  seldom  starve  to  death  the  first  season,  although 
their  growth  may  be  small  and  weak,  if  supplied  with  a 
sufficient  quantity  of  the  proper  fertilizers  the  second 
year,  they  may  not  only  live,  but  finally  become  strong 
and  productive,  at  a  loss  to  the  cultivator  of  a  year's 
growth,  the  penalty  for  his  ignorance  or  negligence. 

In  all  sandy,  gravelly,  and  light  loam  soils  there i  is 
usually  a  want  of  organic  materials,  and  that  want  must 
be  supplied  by  applying  muck,  leaves,  leaf-mold  from 
the  woods,  sods,  or  barnyard  manure,  or  it  may  be  sup- 
plied by  growing  clover  or  some  other  similar  crop  and 
turning  it  under  while  green.  When  muck  or  leaves 
are  used,  it  is  best  to  compost  them  with  barnyard 
manure.  This  may  be  done  by  spreading  the  materials 
over  the  barnyard  a  foot  deep,  and  then  spread  the 
manure  over  it  and  let  the  cattle  tread  it  in ;  and  when 
the  manure  has  accumulated  to  the  depth  of  six  inches, 
spread  on  another  foot,  and  so  until  it  is  three  or  four 
feet  deep;  then  it  should  all  be  forked  over  and  mixed 
together.  If  the  whole  is  under  cover  it  is  better ;  but 
it  is  not  very  essential,  unless  manure  is  very  scarce  and 
valuable.  The  muck  absorbs  all  the  liquid  portions  of 
the  manure  and  prevents  waste,  and  a  compost  of  three- 
fourths  muck  or  of  the  other  materials  named,  and  one- 
fourth  barnyard  manure,  is  more  valuable  for  a  light 
soil  than  if  the  whole  amount  were  barnyard  manure. 

When  it  is  not  convenient  to  make  the  compost 
heap  in  the  barnyard  it  may  be  made  anywhere  in  the 
fields,  by  first  laying  down  a  foot  in  depth  of  any  of 
those  materials,  and  then  drawing  out  the  manure  and 
spreading  it  over  the  surface,  putting  on  alternate  layers 
until  a  sufficient  quantity  is  obtained.  The  compost 
heap  should  be  kept  level  on  the  top,  or  a  little  inclined 
toward  the  center,  so  that  it  shall  receive  the  water  that 
falls  upon  it.  This  will  cause  it  to  decompose  more  rap* 
idly  than  if  the  water  did  not  penetrate  it. 


SOIL   AND   SITUATION.  99 

The  compost  should  be  frequently  turned  over,  so 
that  it  may  become  fine  before  it  is  wanted  for  use.  It 
will  seldom  be  fit  to  use  in  less  than  six  months,  and  it 
is  better  to  let  it  remain  one  year.  Ashes  may  be  applied 
to  the  compost  at  anytime,  with  benefit;  also  ground 
bones,  charcoal,  horn  shavings,  offal  from  the  butchers, 
refuse  from  rope  walks,  woolen  and  cotton  factories,  etc. ; 
in  short,  almost  any  such  materials  may  be  mixed  in ; 
they  are  all  good,  but  not  positively  necessary,  nor  worth 
while  spending  any  great  amount  of  money  or  time  to 
obtain.  Lime  and  ashes  are  both  very  beneficial  to  light 
soils,  but  they  may  be  applied  alone,  and  upon  the  sur- 
face of  the  soil  after  the  vines  are  planted.  Lime,  espe- 
cially, should  be  applied  in  this  manner,  as  it  descends 
rapidly  into  the  soil  and  needs  no  mixing  with  it ;  be- 
sides, when  applied  upon  the  surface  it  will  often  assist 
in  the  destruction  of  the  larvae  of  insects,  in  tiie  decom- 
position of  vegetable  matter,  etc.  Shell  lime  is  consid- 
ered the  best,  but  the  difference  is  so  slight  that  it  will 
not  pay  to  transport  it  any  great  distance  if  stone  lime 
can  be  had  near  at  hand. 

The  compost  should  be  spread  upon  the  soil  and 
plowed  in,  as  has  been  described,  before  the  vines  are 
planted. 

The  quantity  may  vary  from  fifty  to  five  hundred 
two-horse  wagonloads  per  acre,  but  it  is  not  judicious 
to  put  on  too  much  at  first,  as  it  will  cause  a  rampant 
growth  ;  it  is  not  desirable  to  produce  such,  as  it  will  be 
troublesome  to  keep  it  in  check  when  we  come  to  train 
the  vine.  It  is  better  to  apply  sufficient  to  give  the 
vines  a  good  start  and  apply  more  in  after  years  as 
needed. 

There  are  sections  of  the  country  where  there  are 
sandy  and  gravelly  soils  that  are  well  suited  for  vine- 
yards, but  barnyard  manure  can  not  he  obtained.  If 
either  muck,  mud  from  streams,  or  leaf-mold  can  be 


100  THE  GRAPE  CULTURIST. 

had,  they  may  be  used  without  the  barnyard  manure, 
but  they  should  be  placed  in  heaps  where  they  can  be 
forked  over  occasionally,  so  that  they  will  become  sweet- 
ened, as  it  is  termed,  before  using ;  and  it  is  well  to  mix 
a  quantity  of  lime  or  ashes  with  them,  to  assist  the 
decomposition.  A  bushel  of  salt  to  every  ten  or  fifteen 
loads  may  also  be  added  with  benefit. 

Soils  that  are  more  compact,  such  as  are  called 
heavy  loam,  or  approaching  a  clay,  do  not  need  so  much 
of  the  organic  materials  as  those  called  light  soils,  as 
most  of  them  contain  more  or  less  of  them  ;  but  they 
require  thorough  pulverizing ;  after  which,  if  a  good 
dressing  of  well-rotted  barnyard  manure  is  added,  little 
more  is  needed  before  planting  the  vine.  Any  soil  that 
will  produce  a  first-rate  crop  of  corn  or  potatoes  is  rich 
enough  for  vines.  A  few  shovelfuls  of  manure,  or  two 
or  three  quarts  of  bonedust  may  be  mixed  with  the  soil 
when  the  vine  is  planted,  especially  if  the  vine  is  not 
one  of  the  strong  growing  varieties.  And  it  may  not  be 
out  of  place  to  mention  here  that  there  is  a  great  differ- 
ence in  the  growth  of  varieties,  and  the  soil  should  be 
prepared  with  reference  to  this  fact.  Some  kinds  would 
entirely  fail  upon  soils  which  would  be  rich  enough  for 
others.  If  we  should  make  the  soil  rich  enough  to  pro- 
duce a  strong  growth  on  a  feeble  growing  variety,  and 
then  plant  it  with  a  strong  growing  one,  there  would 
not  only  be  a  waste  of  materials  and  labor,  but  the  ram- 
pant growth  produced  would  be  an  abomination  to  the 
vineyardist  when  he  came  to  train  his  vines ;  for  he  not 
only  endeavors  to  train  them,  but  to  control  their  growth. 

Special  Manures. — There  are  many  kinds  of  ma- 
nures known  as  " special,"  some  of  which  are,  no  doubt, 
valuable ;  but  where  those  materials  which  have  been 
mentioned  can  be  obtained,  there  will  be  no  necessity 
of  looking  after  the  specially  concentrated  manures. 
Guano,  poudrette,  superphosphate  of  lime,  etc.,  may 


SOIL  AND  SITUATION. 


101 


occasionally  be  used  with  benefit,  t'o  give  the  yine  a  start 
when  first  planted,  but  it  is  doubtful  whether  it  would 
be  judicious  or  economical  to  depend  entirely  upon  any 
of  them  to  carry  it  through  a  succession  of  years.  I 
have  found  fine  ground  bones  to  be  a  safe  and  not  very 
expensive  stimulant  for  the  vine.  I  sometimes  use  one 
to  two  quarts  to  each  vine  when  planting,  mixing  it 
with  the  soil  immediately  about  the  roots. 

After  a  vineyard  is  planted,  manuring  must  not  be 
neglected;  for  the  vine  needs  not  only  to  be  supplied 
with  food  at  the  start,  but  it  will  want  feeding  contin- 
ually, if  it  continues  to  grow  and  bear  fruit.  How  often 
it  will  need  a  supply  the  vineyardist  must  be  the  judge. 
All  that  is  required  is  to  keep  up  a  healthy  growth. 
Too  much  manure  may  increase  the  size  of  the  fruit,  but 
it  will  injure  its  quality.  The  manure  may  always  be 
applied  upon  the  surface,  and  worked  in  with  the  culti- 
vator or  hoe,  but  the  plow  should  never  be  admitted  into 
a  vineyard,  as  it  will  cause  more  injury  than  benefit. 

Frequent  and  regular  top-dressings  of  manure  are 
better  than  large  applications  at  long  intervals.  Rank 
unfermented  manures  should  not  be  used  for  this  pur- 
pose, as  they  will  often  injure  the  flavor  of  the  fruit ; 
besides,  they  will  more  or  less  affect  the  health  of  the 
leaves 

Upon  very  open  and  porous  soils  a  mulching  of 
leaves,  straw,  tan-bark,  or  similar  materials  will  be  very 
beneficial,  but  upon  more  compact  soils  it  is  better  to 
keep  the  surface  of  the  soil  open  by  frequently  stirring 
it  with  the  hoe  or  cultivator,  so  that  it  will  the  more 
readily  admit  the  air,  and  with  it  heat  and  moisture. 
When  such  soils  become  surcharged  with  water,  as  they 
frequently  do  during  long  rains,  they  will  give  off  much 
of  the  surplus  moisture  if  the  surface  is  kept  open  and 
uncovered ;  but  when  they  are  covered  with  a  mulch 
they  retain  too  much  near  the  surface,  and  the  soil  will 


102  THE   GRAPE   CULTUETST. 

become  soured,  and  the  surface  roots  be  destroyed  in 
consequence.  With  all  the  care  that  may  be  bestowed 
upon  the  vine  in  regard  to  soils,  manures,  etc.,  much 
will  still  depend  upon  the  system  of  pruning  and  train- 
ing adopted. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

STEM   APPENDAGES. 

There  are  various  appendages  to  the  stem  of  the 
vine,  such  as  spines,  hairs,  etc.,  which  are  of  service  to 
the  botanist,  as  they  assist  him  in  determining  the  differ- 
ent species,  varieties,  etc.  ;  but  those  that  are  of  the 
most  interest  to  the  practical  vineyardist  are  the  later- 
als, leaves,  tendrils  and  buds. 

The  mode  of  treating  laterals  has  been  given  in  a 
preceding  chapter,  in  which  it  was  shown  how  they  may 
become  injurious  or  beneficial  to  the  vine,  according  to 
the  will  of  the  vineyardist.  Leaves  are  the  most  con- 
spicuous appendage  of  the  vine,  and  they  are  of  the 
greatest  importance,  as  it  can  not  exist  without  them. 
They  are  sometimes  called  the  lungs  of  plants,  and  many 
beautiful  theories  have  been  brought  forward  in  accord- 
ance with  the  similitude.  Their  chief  office  appears  to 
be  to  assimilate  materials  which  are  taken  up  by  the 
roots,  and  to  do  this  it  is  necessary  that  their  surface 
should  be  exposed  to  light.  The  greater  surface  of 
leaves  that  a  vine  exposes  to  the  sun.  the  greater  power 
will  it  have  to  take  up  liquids  from  the  soil,  and  with 
them  those  constituents  which  go  to  make  up  the  whole 
structure  of  the  vine. 

This  being  the  fact,  it  can  readily  be  seen  how,  by 
diminishing  the  number  of  leaves,  we  check  growth,  or 


STEM  APPENDAGES.  103 

vice  versa.  But  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  simply 
taking  off  a  portion  of  leaves  will  not  always  actually 
diminish  the  strength  of  the  vine ;  for  instance,  if  they 
are  much  crowded,  one  portion  may  shade  the  other,  and 
all  may  be  small,  feeble,  and  of  little  use.  If  a  part  of 
these  are  removed,  those  remaining  expand,  and  one 
leaf  may  become  of  more  importance  to  the  vine  than  a 
dozen  when  crowded. 

This  is  why  we  pinch  off,  thin  out,  etc.  ;  for  the 
results  of  these  operations  show  that,  when  under  culti- 
vation, vines  will  produce  a  larger  number  of  leaves  than 
are  necessary  to  secure  the  proper  development  and 
health  of  the  plant. 

Although  the  general  appearance  and  structure  of 
vine  leaves  are  very  similar,  yet  there  is  a  great  differ- 
ence in  the  relative  power  of  leaves  of  different  varieties 
to  withstand  the  various  changes  of  climate,  disease, 
etc.  ;  and  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  their  full 
development  should  be  attained  in  all  cases,  so  that  they 
shall  not  be  affected  by  the  ordinary  changes  of  the  tem- 
perature during  the  period  of  growth. 

Forms  of  Leaves. — To  mention  even  a  hundredth 
part  of  the  various  forms  of  vine  leaves  would  occupy 
too  much  of  our  space.  But  I  have  given  the  following 
illustrations  for  the  purpose  of  showing  the  different 
characteristics  of  the  leaves  of  some  of  the  different  spe- 
cies, and  at  the  same  time  convey  a  better  idea  of  the 
meaning  of  some  of  the  terms  commonly  employed  in 
describing  the  leaves  of  the  different  kinds,  than  could 
be  done  without  engravings. 

-  The  leaves  are  necessarily  shown  much  smaller  than 
the  natural  size,  but  in  doing  so  I  have  endeavored  to 
preserve  their  most  prominent  features.  In  making  the 
selections  for  the  engravings  from  my  sketch-book,  I 
intended  merely  to  choose  those  which  were  quite  dis- 
tinct ;  but  since  they  were  engraved  I  have  found  that, 


104 


THE   GRAPE  CULTURTST. 


although  inadvertently,  I  have  selected  those  that  are 
natives  of  as  widely  separated  portions  of  the  globe  as  I 
could  have  possibly  wished,  had  I  aimed  at  doing  so. 
The  leaf  has  two  distinct  portions — the  expanded  part, 
or  Uade,  and  the  leaf-stalk,  or  petiole.  The  petiole  is 
attached  to  the  base  of  the  blade,  and  the  opposite  point 
is  the  apex.  The  general  outline  of  grape  leaves  is  inoro 


FIG.  30.     THE  OPORTO. 

or  less  heart-shaped.  The  Oporto  (Fig.  30)  is  round, 
heart-shaped;  the  Nebraska  (Fig.  31)  acuminate,  or 
pointed-heart-shaped ;  while  the  Scuppernong  (Fig.  32) 
is  scarcely  heart-shaped  at  all,  but  nearly  orbicular. 
The  edges  of  the  leaves  are  variously  notched,  and  these 
markings,  as  well  as  the  general  shape,  are  of  importance 


STEM   APPENDAGES.  105 

in  distinguishing  species  and  varieties.  It  will  be  seen, 
by  comparing  the  different  figures  of  grape  leaves,  that 
the  notches  differ  not  only  in  shape,  but  in  depth. 
These  divisions  upon  the  margin,  when  small,  and  shaped 


FIG.  31.     THE   NEBRASKA. 

like  those  in  the  leaf  of  the  Oporto,  are  called  teech, 
such  leaves  are  said  to  be  dentated,  or  toothed ;  here  the 
leaf  is  finely  dentate,  while  in  the  Scuppernong  (Fig.  32) 
they  are  coarsely  dentate,  and  in  the  Yeddo  (Fig.  33) 
crenate,  or  scolloped- toothed. 


106 


THE   GRAPE   CULTURIST. 


The  leaf  of  the  Nebraska  grape  (Fig.  31)  is  cut- 
toothed,  the  divisions  being  irregular  and  sharp.  When 
the  divisions  are  larger  they  are  called  lobes.  In  the 
Texas  Post  Oak  grape  leaf  (Fig.  34),  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  are 
lobes,  and  the  leaf  is  said  to  be  five-lobed.  The  Yeddo 
leaf  is  three-lobed,  and  the  Nebraska  and  Oporto  arc 


FIG.  32.     THE  SCUPPERNONG. 

obscurely  three-lobed.  In  the  Post  Oak  grape  leaf  the 
lobes  1  and  5  overlap  the  leaf-stalk,  and  these  portions 
which  do  this  are  called  alae,  or  wings;  some  of  the 
other  lobes  in  this  leaf  overlap,  but  no  distinctive  name 
is  applied  to  them.  The  spaces  between  the  lobes,  as 
well  as  the  depression  at  the  base  of  the  leaf  where  the 


STEM    A.PPENDAGES. 


107 


petiole  is  attached,  are  called  sinuses,  and  the  shape  and 
depth  of  these  afford  distinguishing  characters.  These 
are  the  principal  terms  used  in  describing  the  shape  of 
grape  leaves,  and  the  strikingly  different  forms  can  be 
described  so  that  they  may  be  recognized  ;  but  it  is  often 
the  case  that  the  difference  in  foliage  in  distinct  varie- 


FIG.  33.     THE   YEDDO. 

ties  is  so  slight  that,  although  it  is  readily  perceived  by 
a  practiced  eye,  it  is  not  possible  to  express  these  dis- 
tinctions in  words. 

There  are  also  many  other  marks  that  aid  us  in  dis- 
tinguishing the   different  varieties — perhaps  the   most 


108 


THE   GRAPE  CULTURIST. 


variable  of  these  is  color,  as  the  leaves  of  scarcely  any 
two  varieties  possess  the  same  shade  of  green,  although 
it  is  the  predominant  color  in  all. 

The  Scuppernong  leaf  is  a  light  green,  and  smooth 
on  both  sides,  and  shining  on  the  upper ;  while  the  Post 


FIG.  34.     THE  POST  OAK. 


Oak  grape  leaf  is  a  dark,  dull  green  on  the  upper  side, 
and  rusty-woolly  on  the  under  side.  The  petiole  and 
veins  of  some  leaves  are  red,  others  dark  brown,  and  in 
others  the  red  color  pervades,  more  or  less,  the  whole 


STEM    APPENDAGES. 


1C9 


leaf.  When  the  leaves  are  smooth  they  are  called  gla- 
brous, and  if  not,  they  are  called  pubescent — woolly,  or 
hairy,  according  to  the  degree  of  roughness.  When  the 
leaves  are  merely  smooth  they  are  called  glabrous,  but  if 
they  have  a  polished  surface,  then  they  are  called  shin- 
ing. When  the  leaves  are  covered  with  a  whitish  bloom, 


FIG.  35,     PORTION  OP  VINE  WITH  TENDRHi. 

or  waxy  substance  that  readily  rubs  off,  they  are  called 
glaucous. 

There  is  also  a  great  difference  in  the  texture  of 
leaves ;  some  are  very  thick  and  tough,  while  others  are 
brittle.  But  the  thinness  or  thickness  of  the  leaf  does 
not  indicate  the  strength,  for  some  that  are  quite  thin 
are  very  strong  and  enduring. 

Other  characteristics  of  vine  leaves  might  be  men- 
tioned, but  enough  have  already  been  given  to  show  that 


110  THE  GBAPE  CULTUBIST. 

there  is  a  sufficient  number  to  enable  a  close  observer  to 
distinguish  the  different  varieties,  however  closely  they 
may  be  related. 

Tendrils. — Tendrils  are  but  a  tortuous  elongation 
of  the  woody  fiber  of  the  stem,  and  they  preserve  their 
vitality  but  one  season. 

They  are  always  situated  directly  opposite  to  a  leaf, 
and  remain  connected  permanently  to  the  stem  until 
they  decay ;  while  the  leaf  is  united  only  temporarily, 
and  drops  off  at  the  end  of  the  season.  In  the  wild  vine 
the  tendril  serves  an  important  purpose,  in  assisting  it 
to  climb ;  in  the  cultivated  vine,  it  being  artificially  sup- 
ported, tendrils  are  no  longer  needed,  and  may  be,  in 
part,  cut  off  while  young,  as  they  are  not  only  useless, 
but  will,  if  allowed  to  remain,  often  cause  the  vine  to 
become  entangled,  and  produce  confusion  where  order  is 
necessary.  Fig.  35— /  shows  a  portion  of  a  vine  with 
tendril  (A)  attached,  the  end  of  the  tendril  in  two  divis- 
ions, one  considerably  shorter  than  the  other  ;  both  of 
these  possess  much  interest  when,  instead  of  being  ten- 
drils, they  are  bunches  of  fruit. 

The  first  three  or  four  tendrils  produced  in  spring 
upon  bearing  vines  are  but  the  peduncles,  or  flower- 
stalks,  of  the  thyrse  of  flowers,  which  eventually  becomes 
a  bunch  of  grapes.  But  if  the  elements  requisite  to  sup- 
port the  flowers  and  fruit  are  not  supplied,  or  by  acci- 
dent the  proper  amount  of  light  and  heat  is  excluded, 
then  these  peduncles  will  become  tendrils.  Therefore  a 
tendril  may  be  said  to  be  a  barren  peduncle,  and  a  bunch 
of  fruit  a  productive  tendril,  for  they  may  become  either 
under  favorable  circumstances.  The  divisions  of  the 
tendril  referred  to  above  show  a  peculiar  characteristic 
in  the  formation  of  the  bunch  of  fruit,  which  is  seen  in 
most  of  our  native,  as  well  as  in  many  of  the  European 
varieties  of  grapes.  The  longer  division  becomes  the 
main  body  of  the  bunch,  and  the  shorter  becomes  what 


STEM  APPENDAGES. 


Ill 


FIG.  3G.     BUNCH  WITH  SHOULDER. 


112  THE  GRAPE  CULTURIST. 

is  termed  the  shoulder.  Fig.  36  shows  a  bunch  of 
grapes,  as  produced  from  a  divided  productive  tendril. 
This  form  of  bunch  might  be  appropriately  called  the 
natural  form,  and  certainly  it  seems  to  carry  with  it 
more  of  the  general  idea  of  a  bunch  of  grapes  than  many 
of  the  other  forms  which  are  occasionally  seen. 

Sometimes  a  bunch  is  divided  into  several  small 
clusters,  which  partly  or  entirely  surround  the  main 
body ;  when  this  occurs  they  are  called  clustered  bunches 
instead  of  shouldered.  But  as  the  bunches  of  fruit  are 
more  or  less  variable  in  the  same  kind  of  grape,  it  is  not 
expected,  in  describing  a  variety,  that  more  than  their 
general  character  can  be  given. 

Buds. — Buds  are  embryo  plants,  for  they  contain 
all  the  elements  necessary  to  insure  or  secure,  when 
removed  from  the  parent,  a  distinctive,  individual  exist- 
ence. They  contain  the  rudiments  of  leaves  and  stem 
in  a  miniature  form,  and  growth  is  but  the  development 
of  these  individual  parts. 

The  principal  buds  of  the  vine  are  situated  at  the 
axils  of  the  leaves  only,  and  are  never  found  upon  any 
other  part  of  the  stem.  They  are  naturally  single — that 
is,  produce  but  one  shoot ;  but  vines,  when  under  culti- 
vation, often  show  a  disposition  to  produce  a  number  of 
shoots  from  a  bud ;  or,  in  other  words,  the  buds  divide 
indefinitely,  and  each  division  is  capable  of  producing  a 
distinct  cane.  Fig.  35 — e  and  c  show  a  double  bud; 
such  examples  are  often  seen  upon  trained  vines,  and 
nearly  every  bud,  upon  vines  that  have  been  checked 
during  growth,  will  show  the  double  bud,  both  of  which 
will  often  produce  a  shoot,  but  seldom  of  uniform 
strength.  If  a  shoot  that  has  started  from  a  bud  is 
broken  off,  others  will  immediately  start  from  near  its 
base.  These  are  said  to  grow  from  accessory  buds. 
They  are  sometimes  incorrectly  called  adventitious  ;  but 
adventitious  buds  do  not  exist  upon  the  stem  of  the 
vine,  as  they  do  upon  most  other  woody  plants. 


STEM  APPENDAGES.  113 

The  word  adventitious  is  from  adventive,  implying 
accidental,  and  not,  necessarily,  pre-existing  in  form ; 
and  as  I  am  not  aware  of  any  instances  where  buds  have 
teen  produced,  by  art  or  nature,  upon  the  stem  of  the 
^vine,  except  at  the  point  where  buds  originally  existed, 
we  may  conclude  that  they  are  accessory  buds.  Buds 
will  sometimes  be  produced  from  the  lateral  roots  of  the 
vine  at  the  point  of  separation,  especially  if  they  are  of 
considerable  size;  these  are,  strictly  speaking,  adventi- 
tious. Although  several  shoots  may  be  forced  to  grow 
from  what  is  apparently  a  single  bud,  yet  it  is  seldom 
judicious  to  do  so,  for  if  the  bud  produces  but  one  shoot, 
it  will  be  much  more  vigorous  than  if  the  strength  of 
the  plant  is  divided  among  several.  It  is  a  matter  of 
considerable  moment  to  the  vineyardist  that  all  the  main 
buds  be  fully  developed,  and  especially  those  that  are 
required  for  producing  fruit  and  bearing  canes,  as  it  is 
only  from  such  buds  that  the  largest  and  best  fruit  is 
produced.  Keeping  this  fact  in  view,  every  precaution 
should  be  taken  to  preserve  the  vitality,  as  well  as  the 
full  development,  of  the  buds. 

Nature  has  provided  a  protection  to  the  buds,  by 
Covering  them  with  bud-scales,  which  ordinarily  serve 
to  protect  them  against  the  sudden  changes  of  the  atmos- 
phere while  they  are  dormant ;  but  in  some  sections  of 
the  country  this  protection  is  insufficient,  and  their 
vitality  is  either  entirely  destroyed,  or  very  much  injured. 
In  such  localities  an  artificial  protection  must  be  fur- 
nished. The  method  of  applying  such  a  protection  will 
be  given  in  another  chapter. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

PLANTING  THE  VINE. 

There  seems  to  be  as  great  a  diversity  of  opinion 
among  vineyardists  in  regard  to  the  best  time  to  plant, 
as  there  is  upon  the  various  details  connected  with  plant- 
ing. My  own  rule  is  to  plant  vines  in  the  fall,  when- 
ever circumstances  will  permit  me  to  do  so ;  but  if  it  is 
not  convenient  to  plant  at  that  time,  then  I  do  the  next 
best  thing — that  is,  plant  them  so  soon  in  the  spring  as 
the  soil  is  in  a  condition  to  permit  of  it.  I  prefer  plant- 
ing in  the  fall,  because  the  soil  becomes  settled  about 
their  roots,  and  all  wounds  made  upon  them  in  the 
process  of  transplanting  will,  in  a  grent  measure,  become 
healed,  and  very  often  new  roots  will  issr.e  before  the 
ground  would  permit  of  the  vines  being  planted  in  the 
spring.  Thus  they  become  all  ready  to  commence  groAV- 
ing  as  soon  as  the  frost  is  out  of  the  ground. 

The  buds  will  commence  swelling  at  the  first  ap- 
proach of  warm  weather,  and  they  are  then  very  brittle 
and  liable  to  be  broken  off. 

I  think,  as  a  general  thing,  vines  planted  in  the 
fall  will  make  at  least  one- third  more  growth  the  first 
season  than  when  planted  in  spring.  In  very  cold  local- 
ities, or  in  soils  that  are  naturally  tenacious  and  heavy, 
spring  planting  is,  perhaps,  preferable  to  fall.  But  it 
should  be  a  maxim  with  the  vineyardist,  "  never  put  off 
until  another  season  that  which  may  be  safely  done  in 
the  present." 

The  condition  of  the  soil  must,  in  part,  govern  us 
in  this  operation,  for  it  will  not  do  to  plant  the  vines 

114 


PLANTING   THE   VINE.  115 

when  the  soil  is  soaked  with  water ;  for  in  that  condition 
it  can  not  be  readily  divided  so  as  to  be  made  to  inter- 
mingle with  the  roots.  Nor  will  it  do  to  plant  when 
the  soil  is  parched  and  dry ;  but  it  should  be  in  that 
moist  and  friable  condition  which  allows  it  to  be  easily 
worked. 

Root  Pruning. — However  carefully  vines  are  taken 
up  from,  the  nursery,  the  ends  of  a  greater  portion  of 
the  roots  will  be  broken  off.  These  should  be  cut 
smoothly  before  planting.  It  is  also  beneficial  to  shorten 
the  roots  considerably,  especially  if  they  are  long  and 
destitute  of  branching  fibers.  Two. feet  is  long  enough 
to  leave  any  root  upon  a  two  or  three-year-old  vine ; 
longer  ones  should  be  cut  off,  not  only  to  render  them 
more  convenient  for  planting,  but  to  incite  the  main 
roots  to  throw  out  new  ones  from  their  ends,  as  well  us 
from  their  sides.  The  soil  will  thereby  become  filled 
with  feeding  roots,  instead  of  a  few  long  naked  ones, 
that  have  no  power  of  absorbing  food  except  through 
the  small  fibers  which  exist  only  at  their  extreme  ends. 
The  soil  within  the  radius  occupied  by  these  long  roots 
is  useless,  so  far  as  furnishing  nutriment  is  concerned, 
because  they  are  not  capable  of  absorbing  it.  It  will 
often  be  necessary  to  shorten  the  roots  to  less  than  two 
feet,  and  it  is  best  to  cut  off  a  portion  of  the  ends,  no 
matter  what  their  length  may  be.  For  it  is  not  the 
length  or  number  of  roots  that  determines  the  quality  of 
the  vine,  but  their  condition.  If  long,  soft,  spongy  and 
unripened  wood  and  roots  are  left  upon  the  vine,  they 
are  of  but  little  benefit  to  it,  at  best,  and  they  will  often 
die,  and  in  their  decay  communicate  disease  to  the  other 
and  more  healthy  portions  of  the  plant.  This  is  partic- 
ularly the  case  with  layers — their  roots  being  produced 
late  in  the  season,  they  are  seldom  ripened  to  their  full 
length ;  hence  the  necessity  for  severely  shortening  their 
roots.  And  here,  I  believe,  is  the  chief  cause  of  so 


116  THE  GRAPE  CULTtJBIST. 

much  discussion  upon  the  value  of  layered  plants. 
Those  who  obtain  properly  grown  layers  and  cut  back 
the  roots  to  at  least  one-half  their  length  before  planting, 
pronounce  them  to  be  equal  to  plants  grown  in  any  other 
way.  But  those  who  have  pursued  the  opposite,  and 
planted  them  with  their  roots  entire,  often  fail  to  pro- 
duce healthy  or  vigorous  plants,  and  therefore  condemn 
them. 

Vines  will  sometimes  have  so  great  a  number  of 
roots  that  when  transplanted  the  number  of  buds  left 
upon  the  stem  is  insufficient  to  call  them  into  action, 
and  they  perish,  in  consequence;  for  roots  will  not 
remain  entirely  inactive  for  any  considerable  time  during 
the  growing  season  without  suffering.  If  the  roots  are 
so  crowded  that  they  can  not  be  distinctly  separated  and 
a  clear  space  be  allowed  for  each  when  placed  in  the 
ground,  then  a  portion  should  be  entirely  removed. 

If  the  texture  of  the  soil  is  such  as  to  make  it  con- 
genial to  the  growth  of  the  roots,  and  permit  them  to 
permeate  it  without  hindrance,  their  course  will  be  more 
inclined  to  the  horizontal  than  the  perpendicular,  and 
certainly  the  former  position  is  more  desirable  than  the 
latter.  For  when  the  roots  spread  out  horizontally,  they 
remain  near  enough  to  the  surface  to  receive  the  full 
benefit  of  all  top-dressings  of  manure  which  may  be  ap- 
plied to  the  vineyard.  They  are  also  more  accessible  to 
heat,  air  and  moisture,  than  when  they  penetrate  deeply. 
And  while  it  is  desirable  to  encourage  the  spreading  of 
the  roots  in  every  direction,  so  as  to  occupy  every  por- 
tion of  the  soil,  and  have  them  near  enough  to  the  sur- 
face to  receive  all  the  benefit  possible  from  such  a  posi- 
tion, yet  we  should  not  place  them  too  near  the  surface 
at  the  time  of  planting,  nor  endeavor  to  keep  them  there. 
For  unless  the  roots  are  covered  deep  enough  to  prevent 
their  being  affected  by  sudden  atmospheric  changes, 
the  vine  will  surely  suffer.  Roots  that  are  near  the  sur- 


PLANTING  THE  VINE.  117 

face  appear  to  be  more  sensitive  than  those  which  are 
deeper,  and  they  are  the  first  to  start  in  the  spring,  and 
the  first  to  be  checked  by  cold  in  the  autumn,  or  by  long 
drouths  in  summer.  The  depth  to  which  roots  should 
be  covered  depends  somewhat  upon  circumstances.  In 
light  soils  they  should  be  covered  deeper  than  upon 
heavy,  because  the  air  has  a  more  ready  access  to  a 
porous  soil  than  it  has  in  one  that  is  tenacious ;  and 
while  it  is  necessary  that  air  should  reach  the  roots,  it  is 
not  judicious  to  allow  it  to  penetrate  too  freely,  because 
roots  require  a  partially  confined  atmosphere,  and  not 
one  that  has  any  apparent  circulation.  There  is  one 
class  of  cultivators  who  advocate  deep  planting,  and 
they  place  the  roots  from  twelve  to  twenty-four  inches 
deep ;  another  class  follow  the  other  extreme,  and  but 
little  more  than  cover  the  roots  with  earth,  and  then 
depend  upon  mulching  for  the  requisite  protection ;  and 
although  both  of  these  extremists  offer  many  plausible 
arguments  in  support  of  their  different  theories,  yet  a 
middle  course,  I  am  confident,  is  the  safest  and  best. 

How  to  Plant. — When  a  number  of  vines  are  to 
be  planted,  it  is  best  to  dig  the  holes  before  the  vines 
are  taken  into  the  field,  and  when  they  are  taken  from 
the  place  where  they  have  been  heeled-in,  their  roots 
should  be  kept  in  a  box  or  basket  filled  with  damp  moss, 
or  protected  in  some  such  manner  from  the  air  and  sun. 
The  vines  should  also  be  pruned  before  they  are  taken 
into  the  field.  Prune  the  roots,  as  has  already  been 
directed,  and  cut  off  the  stem  to  about  eighteen  inches. 
The  holes  to  receive  the  vines  should  be  dug  in  a  circu- 
lar form,  and  from  six  to  ten  inches  deep  upon  the  out- 
side, and  four  to  six  inches  in  the  center ;  then  set  a 
good  strong  stake  in  the  center  of  the  hole ;  for  unless 
the  stake  is  placed  in  position  before  the  vine  is  planted, 
there  is  great  danger  of  injuring  some  of  the  roots  of  the 
vine  in  driving  it  down  by  its  side  after  it  is  in  position. 


118  THE   GEAPE   CULTUBIST. 

Now  set  the  vine  in  the  center  of  the  hole  close  by  the 
stake,  spread  out  the  roots  in  every  direction,  and  throw 
on  a  little  soil  as  you  proceed,  to  hold  them  in  position. 
When  all  the  roots  are  properly  distributed,  then  fill  up 
the  holes,  pressing  down  the  soil  with  the  foot — the 
weight  of  a  man  will  not  be  too  much  pressure  to  give 
the  soil  over  the  roots.  It  requires  two  men  to  work  to 
advantage  in  planting,  one  to  place  the  vine  in  position 
and  spread  out  the  root,  and  another  to  put  in  the  earth. 
Fig.  37  shows  the  form  of  the  hole,  with  the  stake  and 
vine  in  position,  ready  to  be  filled  up.  The  roots  should 


FIG '37. 

always  descend  a  little  from  the  stem  to  their  farthest 
point,  and  in  pressing  down  the  soil  upon  them,  it  should 
be  given  the  same  pressure,  as  near  as  may  be,  along 
their  whole  length.  If  the  vines  are  planted  in  the  fall, 
then  a  small  mound  of  earth  should  be  made  around  the 
stem,  so  as  to  protect  two  or  three  buds  above  those  that 
would  be  covered  if  the  ground  were  made  level.  But 
when  the  vines  are  planted  in  the  spring,  the  hole  need 
not  be  filled  quite  full,  but  a  shallow  basin  may  be  left 
about  the  stem  so  that  the  rains  shall  more  readily  reach 
the  roots.  This  basin  around  the  vine  may  be  filled 


PLANTING   THE   VINE.  119 

when  the  vine  gets  well  started  into  growth.  When  the 
buds  begin  to  push  into  growth,  select  the  strongest  and 
rub  the  others  off ;  a  bud  near  the  ground  is  preferable 
to  one  that  is  a  foot  above,  and  this  is  one  reason  why 
the  vines  should  be  cut  off  quite  short  when  planted,  as 
it  makes  the  lower  buds  more  sure  to  push.  After  the 
one  bud  or  shoot  has  been  selected,  the  old  stem  above 
it  may  be  cut  off  to  within  two  inches  of  the  young 
shoot.  As  the  young  cane  grows,  keep  it  tied  to  the 
stake,  but  do  not  tie  it  so  tightly  as  to  interfere  with  its 
expansion  as  it  grows.  Keep  the  laterals  stopped,  ac- 
cording to  the  directions  already  given.  Stir  the  soil 
about  the  plants,  the  oftener  the  better,  and  keep  down 
all  weeds. 

Bass  is  an  excellent  material  for  tying  the  vines,  as 
it  is  not  liable  to  injure  the  tender  shoots ;  besides,  it 
usually  costs  less  than  common  twine. 

When  any  particular  vine,  or  a  number  of  them,  do 
not  grow  as  rapidly  as  desired,  they  should  receive  some 
extra  stimulant,  either  liquid  mnaure  from  the  barnyard, 
or  a  solution  of  some  of  the  concentrated  manures  in 
water,  giving  enough  to  completely  saturate  the  soil  to 
their  roots.  When  it  is  not  convenient  to  apply  stimu- 
lants in  a  liquid  form,  ;i  barrow  load  of  compost  may  be 
spread  upon  the  surface  about  the  vine.  We  should 
endeavor  to  produce  a  uniform  growth,  so  that  all  the 
vines  in  each  row,  at  least,  shall  be  as  nearly  of  the  same 
size  as  possible. 

The  vines,  at  the  end  of  the  first  season,  will  usually 
be  large  enough  to  be  pruned  for  training,  but  many  of 
the  more  feeble  growing  varieties  will  require  another 
year,  and  they  should  be  cut  back  in  the  fall  or  winter 
to  two  or  three  buds,  only  one  of  which  should  be  allowed 
•,o  grow,  as  in  the  first  year. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

GEAPE  TRELLISES. 

The  usual  manner  of  making  grape  trellises  is  with 
wire  running  horizontally,  and  this  answers  very  well 
wifch  all  the  various  systems  of  training,  except  in  thn 
arm  and  upright  hearing  canes  and  spur  pruning,  which 
is  described  in  the  succeeding  chapter.  For  the  ami 
and  spur  pruning  I  much  prefer  a  trellis  built  as  shown 
in  Fig.  38,  consisting  of  two  horizontal  bars  and  perpen  • 
dicular  wire.  Everybody  who  has  made  trellises  in  the 
ordinary  manner  is  aware  of  the  difficulty  of  keeping  the 
wires  straight,  even  if  the  posts  to  which  they  are  fas- 
tened are  not  more  than  eight  feet  apart,  as  the  wires 
will  contract  and  expand  at  every  change  of  temperature, 
being  loose  on  hot  days  and  tight  on  cold  ones.  Besides, 
much  larger  wires  must  be  used,  if  put  on  horizontally, 
to  support  the  fruit  and  the  vine.  But  the  most  serious 
objection  that  I  have  found  is,  that  the  wires,  unless 
very  near  together,  are  not  where  they  are  most  needed 
when  the  young  upright  bearing  shoots  first  start,  for 
they  must  be  tied  to  something  to  support  them  whe? 
only  a  few  inches  long,  or  they  are  very  liable  to  b? 
broken  off  by  heavy,  driving  rains.  If  the  wires  are  eight 
inches  apart  (which  is  nearer  than  the  usual  custom  to 
place  them),  the  young  shoot  must  be  at  least  twelve  to 
fifteen  inches  long  before  the  strength  of  the  vine  wiU 
admit  of  its  being  tied  to  the  horizontal  wire ;  besides, 
when  tied,  the  strings  will  allow  the  shoot  to  slip  length- 
wise of  the  wire,  and  often  it  will  crowd,  or  become 
entangled  with  its  neighbors,  To  tie  the  vine  verj 


GRAPE    TRELLISES. 


121 


tight  to  the  wire  would  cause  it  to  become  girdled  as  it 
expanded  in  growth. 

These  are  but  a  few  of  the  difficulties  which  I  have 
had  to  overcome  in  using  the  common  grape  trellis 
with  horizontal  wires  or  bars,  and  to  avoid  these  difficul- 
ties I  have  adopted  a  trellis  with  horizontal  bars  and 
perpendicular  wires,  shown  in  the  following  illustration. 
It  is  built  in  the  following  manner:  Select  posts  of 
good,  hard,  durable  wood,  of  from  four  to  six  inches  in 
diameter,  and  six  and  a  half  feet  long ;  set  them  in  the 
ground  two  and  a  half  feet  deep,  and  in  a  line  with  the 


FIG.  38. 

vines,  and  eight  feet  apart — that  is,  if  the  vines  are 
that  distance  apart;  a  post  should  be  placed  between 
each  two  vines  at  equal  distance  from  each.  When  the 
posts  are  set,  nail  on  strips  two  and  a  half  to  three  inches 
wide,  and  one  inch  thick,  one  strip,  or  bar,  being  placed 
one  foot  from  the  ground,  and  the  other  at  the  top  of 
the  posts.  Then  take  No.  16  galvanized  iron  wire  and 
put  it  on  perpendicularly,  twisting  it  around  the  lower 
and  upper  bar,  each  wire  being  placed  just  where  the 
upright  bearing  shoots  are  to  grow.  It  is  well  not  to 
put  on  the  wires  until  the  vines  are  ready  for  training, 
and  then  lay  down  the  arms  by  the  side  of  the  lower  bar, 


122  THE    GRAPE   CULTURIST. 

and  make  a  mark  on  it  where  each  wire  is  to  be  put, 
before  fastening  the  arm ;  then  remove  the  arms  to  one 
side  while  putting  on  the  wire.  If  a  wire  should  not  be 
in  the  exact  place  where  it  is  wanted,  it  can  be  easily 
moved  to  the  right  or  left,  provided  it  is  only  twisted 
around  the  bars.  The  distance  between  these  upright 
wires  will  differ  according  to  the  variety  of  vine,  as  the 
distance  between  the  buds  varies  very  materially  in  dif- 
ferent varieties,  but  usually  from  eight  to  twelve  inches 
will  be  the  proper  distance,  sometimes  wiring  at  every 
bud,  and  with  others  only  at  every  alternate  one. 

It  will  readily  be  seen  that  in  this  mode  of  making  a 
trellis,  when  the  young  shoots  start  they  can  be  tied  at 
any  time  when  necessary ;  and  there  is  no  need,  nor  is  it 
judicious,  to  tie  them  tight  to  the  wire ;  they  should  be 

8     10   12  14 16  ^t  a^  ^eas*  one  *ncn  fr°m  ^,  the  two 

111  H  II  H  s^°°^s  being  tied  to  the  one  wire.     The 
!i|  cost  of  wire  is  less  than  when  large  hori- 
I  zontal  wires  are  used.     The  arms  should 
I  be  fastened  to  the  lower  bar,  either  by 
I  strips  of  leather  tacked  on  or  by  tarred 
11  HI  11  II  twine  tied  around  the  arm  and  lower  bar. 
FIG.  39.         It  is  impossible  for  me  to  give  anything 
like  a  correct  estimate  of  the  cost  of  building  a  grape 
trellis  after  this  plan,  because  the  different  materials  used 
in  its  construction  are  very  variable  in  price  ;  besides,  that 
which  would  constitute  the  greater  part  of  the  expense 
in  one  section  of  the  country,  might  be  the  least  of  it  in 
another.     Galvanized  iron  wire  should  always  be  used  in 
preference  to  any  other.     It  costs  from  three  to  five 
cents  per  pound  more  than  the  common  annealed  wire, 
but  its  lasting  qualities  are  so  much  greater  that  it  fully 
compensates  for  the  additional  expense. 

This  form  of  trellis  may  also  be  used  for  other  modes 
of  training,  such  as  the  fan  system,  bow  system,  etc., 
provided  the  vines  are  to  be  trained  low  on  the  trellis. 


TIME   TO    PRUNE   VINES.  123 

Fig.  39  shows  the  relative  sizes  of  such  as  are  commonly 
used  for  trellises.  Nos.  14  and  16  are  large  enough  for 
the  perpendicular  wires  on  such  trellises  as  I  have  de- 
scribed ;  8  and  10  are  the  sizes  used  when  put  on  hori- 
zontally. The  number  of  pounds  of  wire  required  for  a 
given  length  of  trellis  may  be  readily  ascertained  by  cal- 
culating the  number  of  feet  required,  and  then  dividing 
the  amount  by  the  number  of  feet  in  a  pound,  which  is 
as  follows  : 

No.    8.    13  feet  to  the  pound.        I        No.  14.    64  feet  to  the  pound. 
No.  10.    20    "        "  "  No.  16.  102    ' 

No.  12.    33    «•        "  «* 


CHAPTER  XV. 

TIME   TO    PRUNE   VINES. 

The  time  for  pruning  vines  will  vary  with  the  local- 
ity in  which  they  are  grown  ;  but,  as  a  general  rule,  it 
may  be  commenced  as  soon  as  the  vine  has  shed  its 
leaves  in  the  autumn  ;  and  if  the  wood  is  to  be  used  for 
propagation,  it  is  certainly  better  if  taken  from  the  vines 
before  it  has  been  severely  frozen.  But  in  pruning  in 
the  autumn  or  winter,  the  vines  should  not  be  cut  back 
to  the  bud  or  buds  that  are  wanted  for  fruit,  but  leave 
one  or  two  extra  ones  above  them,  and  then  go  over  the 
vines  a  few  weeks  before  they  start  in  the  spring,  and 
cut  off  these  extra  buds.  This  second  pruning  I  usually 
do  the  last  of  February  or  the  first  of  March,  always 
pruning  before  the  cold  weather  is  entirely  past ;  for  if 
delayed  until  the  sap  begins  to  flow  rapidly,  it  will  issuft 
from  the  wounds  in  such  excessive  quantities  as  to  mate- 
rially injure  the  vine.  If  the  vines  are  pruned  in  the 
autumn  down  to  the  buds  which  are  wanted  for  produc- 
ing fruiting  canes,  the  uppermost  buds  are  very  likely  to 


124  THE   GRAPE   CULTUEIST. 

be  winter  killed.  Even  where  the  winters  are  not  severe 
it  is  best  to  leave  one  extra  bud,  because  the  sap  will 
usually  recede  from  the  part  which  has  been  cut,  and 
the  end  will  become  somewhat  dried,  if  not  injured  by 
cold. 

Where  vines  are  laid  down  and  protected  in  winter, 
then  the  pruning  may  be  completed  at  once,  as  no  sec- 
ond  pruning  will  be  necessary,  the  covering  given  to  the 
vines  protecting  them  both  from  the  effects  of  the  cold 
and  dryness.  Some  vineyardists  do  not  prune  at  all 
until  the  latter  part  of  winter  or  early  spring,  in  which 
case  no  extra  buds  should  be  left.  There  is  a  theory  in 
regard  to  time  of  pruning  which  is  of  very  ancient  date, 
and  as  it  has  been,  and  is  still,  taken  as  a  partial  guide 
by  many  cultivators,  in  pruning,  not  only  the  vine,  but 
other  fruit-bearing  plants,  I  will  give  the  main  points  of 
it  as  briefly  as  possible.  According  to  this  theory,  when 
cold  weather  first  checks  the  growth  of  the  vine  it  doea 
not  entirely  stop  the  absorption  of  food  by  the  roots ; 
consequently  the  vine  becomes  surcharged  with  sap,  the 
liquid  portions  of  which  are  partially  given  off  by  evap- 
oration through  the  bark  and  buds,  and  the  more  solid 
portions  are  deposited  throughout  the  entire  length  of 
the  vine,  so  that  each  bud  is  equally  supplied  with  its 
quota  of  food  with  which  to  commence  vegetation  anew 
in  the  spring.  Now  suppose  a  portion  of  the  vine  is  cut 
away  early  in  the  fall,  it  is  evident  that  that  which 
remains  has  the  whole  root  for  its  support,  and  it  may 
receive  all  the  strength  that  would  have  been  diffused 
throughout  the  unpruned  vine.  The  few  remaining 
buds  will,  of  course,  put  forth  in  spring  much  more  vig- 
orously, and  send  out  fruit-bearing  wood  in  greater  per- 
fection than  it  is  possible  for  an  unpruned  vine  to  do. 

I  doubt  the  truth  of  this  theory ;  but,  according  to 
it,  the  rule  for  pruning  would  be  :  If  the  vine  is  weak, 
prune  early — that  is,  so  soon  as  it  sheds  its  leaves ;  but 


TIME  TO   PRUXE   V1KES. 


if  it  is  a  vigorous  grower  and  a  shy  bearer,  then  prune 
late.  That  pruning  the  vine  at  different  periods  pro- 
duces a  different  result  is  no  doubt  true,  but  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  determine  just  how  much  difference  it  makes, 
because  no  two  vines  in  the  vineyard  will  grow  two  suc- 
cessive seasons  with  exactly  the  same  vigor,  even  if  they 
are  pruned  at  the  same  time  both  years. 

Pruning  and  Training.  —  Having  endeavored,  in 
the  preceding  pages,  to  give  the  necessary  details  for 
laying  the  foundation  of  successful  grape  culture,  we 
will  now  consider  the  best  method  of  building  up  and 
completing  the  structure.  No  matter  how  thoroughly 
this  foundation  has  been  laid,  or  how  congenial  are  all 
the  surroundings,  unless  we  practice  a  system  of  pruning 
and  training  that  harmonizes  with  the  known  laws  that 
govern  the  growth  of  the  vine,  all  the  care  that  has  been 
or  may  be  bestowed  upon  it  will  not  bring  bountiful 
crops,  or  insure  us  against  a  partial,  if  not  a  total  fail- 
ure. The  success  of  grape  culture  in  this  country  de- 
pends almost  entirely  upon  a  general  diffusion  of  practi- 
cal information  relative  to  pruning  and  training. 

There  is  certainly  much  depending  upon  the  adapta- 
tion of  varieties  to  different  localities,  as  well  as  the 
mode  of  culture  adopted  ;  but  these  points  seem  to  be 
better  understood  than  pruning  and  training,  as  infor- 
mation relative  thereto  is  easily  conveyed  through  the 
ordinary  mediums  for  reaching  the  public.  The  interest 
manifested  at  the  present  time  in  grape  culture  owes  its 
origin,  in  a  great  measure,  to  the  fact  that  with  the 
introduction  of  new  native  varieties  of  superior  merit, 
the  attempt  to  cultivate  foreign  varieties  in  the  open  air 
has  been  discontinued,  thereby  removing  one  great  cause 
of  failure.  Many  persons  who  experienced  failure  from 
this  cause  pronounce  all  attempts  at  grape  culture  in 
this  country  to  be  useless.  Another  class  of  cultivators, 
having  escaped  the  foreign  grape  fever,  have  caught  the 


126  THE   GEAPE   CULTUHIST. 

native  one,  and,  judging  from  observation  only,  condemn 
not  only  the  foreign  varieties,  bufc  all  the  modes  and 
systems  ever  adopted  for  their  cultivation ;  some  of  these 
cultivators  are  now  groping  their  way  in  the  dark,  fol- 
lowing no  system,  because  they  have  been  unable  to  find 
one  in  which  there  is  nothing  foreign.  I  have  digressed 
from  the  more  practical  part  of  my  subject,  to  show  how 
readily  some  will  let  their  prejudices  lead  them  from  one 
fatal  extreme  to  another. 

While  I  rejoice  that  the  time  has  come  when  nu 
intelligent  man  in  the  Northern  States  would  think  of 
planting  a  vineyard  with  foreign  varieties,  still  I  am  not 
ready  to  admit  that  all  the  experience  of  the  vineyardists 
of  Europe  is  of  no  practical  value  to  us. 

The  same  laws  that  govern  the  growth  of  the  foreign 
vine  control  that  of  ours,  and  I  have  no  reason  to  doubt 
that  some  of  the  best  systems  of  training  that  have  been 
so  long  successfully  employed  in  Europe  would,  with 
slight  modification,  be  almost  as  successful  here.  I 
know  that  it  has  been  repeatedly  asserted  that  the  Amer- 
ican species  and  varieties  of  the  grape  are  much  stronger 
and  of  coarser  growth  than  the  foreign  ones,  conse- 
quently they  cannot  be  so  readily  brought  under  contro1, 
or  be  kept  within  similar  limits,  without  destroying  their 
usefulness.  But  my  own  experience  and  observation 
lead  me  to  think  that,  so  far  as  regards  growth,  this  is 
an  error,  and  that,  naturally,  the  foreign  are,  on  the 
whole,  as  vigorous  growers  as  are  our  native  varieties. 
When  grown  under  glass  they  appear  to  be  more  so,  and 
whenever  they  are  grown  in  a  favorable  situation  in  the 
open  air  they  are  not  only  strong,  but  often  rampanf, 
growers.  We  can  not  arrive  at  a  correct  estimate  of 
what  their  natural  growth  would  be,  under  favorable 
circumstances,  by  what  we  see  in  the  old  vineyards  of 
Europe,  where  the  soil  has  been  under  cultivation  for 
centuries,  or  by  observing  them  in  our  own  country, 


TIME   TO    PRUNE   VINES.  127 

where  they  seldom  pass  the  first  season  without  being 
attacked  by  disease. 

It  is  not  necessary  for  us  to  follow  strictly  any  of 
the  European  systems  of  culture  or  training,  but  by 
gathering  from  foreign  experience  that  which  is  of  value 
to  us,  and  sifting  out  principles  from  prejudices,  we 
may  arrive  at  facts  which  are  very  important. 

It  is  not  necessary,  nor  would  it  be  judicious,  for  us 
to  undertake  to  dwarf  the  native  vine  to  that  extreme  to 
which  it  is  carried  in  some  parts  of  Europe,  but  we  may 
stop  midway  between  it  and  the  wild  vines  of  our  forests. 
I  know  there  are  some  who  are  continually  pointing  to 
the  wild  vine  as  an  example  of  what  the  cultivated  vine 
should  be,  and  they  tell  us  that  these  vines  bear  fruit 
and  are  free  from  disease.  This  we  are  ever  ready  to 
admit ;  but  we  are  not  cultivating  the  wild  vine,  but 
improved  varieties,  many  of  which  have  parted  with 
much  of  their  wild  character ;  and  even  if  they  had  not, 
would  these  sticklers  against  progression  be  willing  to 
plant  vines,  with  a  small  seedling  parent  tree  by  the  side 
of  each  for  its  support,  and  then  wait  from  ten  to  thirty 
years  for  the  vine  and  tree  to  grow  up  together,  at  the 
end  of  that  time  getting  no  more  in  quantit}T,  with  less 
in  quality,  than  they  now  compel  a  cultivated  vine  of 
three  or  four  years  to  give  them  ?  If  they  are  willing  to 
follow  nature  in  every  particular,  I  have  not  the  least 
doubt  that  any  of  the  improved  varieties  will  be  found 
to  grow  and  remain  healthy  without  pruning  or  training. 
For  my  own  part,  I  take  nature  as  a  guide ;  the  only 
difference  being  that  I  interpret  her  differently  from 
that  class  of  vineyardists  who  follow  no  system,  and 
thereby  are  ever  ready  to  thwart  nature,  but  never 
assisting  her. 

There  are  certain  general  principles  that  govern  the 
growth,  as  well  as  the  fruit-producing  powers,  of  the 
vine  ;  and  while  all  the  operations  in  the  vineyard  should 


128  THE  GEAPE  CULTURIST. 

be  subservient  to  them,  the  details  in  carrying  out  the 
necessary  forms  may  usually  be  varied  without  materially 
affecting  the  final  results. 

The  vine  is  one  of  the  most  tractable  of  all  known 
fruit-bearing  plants,  and  the  easiest  to  control,  although 
possessing  apparently  such  a  wild  and  rambling  nature. 

Its  natural  growth  is  upright,  its  tendrils  furnish- 
ing ample  means  to  assist  it  in  climbing ;  and  while  it 
remains  in  an  upright  position,  the  larger  portion  of  the 
forces  of  the  plant  are  expended  in  producing  a  growth 
of  wood  and  leaves,  while  fruit  is  produced  but  sparingly. 

This  fact  we  see  illustrated  in  the  wild  vine ;  for  it 
is  not  until  it  reaches  a  position  where  it  can  spread  out 
horizontally,  that  we  find  it  producing  abundant  crops. 

We  see  the  vine  in  the  forest,  spreading  over  and 
enveloping  like  a  mantle  the  towering  oak,  or  covering 
the  low  alder  by  the  water  side,  its  clusters  of  fruit  hang- 
ing in  the  shade  beneath ;  and  from  it  we  learn  several 
fundamental  principles.  1st.  That  while  the  leaves 
require  a  full  exposure  to  the  sun,  the  fruit  ripens  fully 
without  it.  2d.  That  while  the  vine  grows  upright  it 
produces  its  most  vigorous  growth  of  wood,  but  its  fruit- 
producing  powers  are  not  fully  developed  until  it  takes  a 
horizontal  position.  3d.  That  fruit  is  produced  most 
abundantly  upon  the  uppermost  branches,  and  that  it 
makes  no  difference  whether  these  upper  branches  are 
on  the  tops  of  lofty  trees  or  on  the  humble  shrub.  This 
proves  conclusively  that  it  is  not,  as  some  cultivators 
contend,  the  height  that  is  necessary  for  the  vine  to 
bear  well ;  for  the  fruit  that  is  fifty  feet  from  the  earth 
is  no  better  than  when  it  is  at  five,  other  circumstances 
being  equal.  It  only  shows  that  the  sap  naturally  presses 
to  the  top  and  forces  out  fruit-bearing  branches  at  that 
point.  I  do  not  mean  that  the  upper  buds  upon  a  one- 
year-old  cane  will  produce  fruit,  for  this  they  will  sel- 
dom do,  as  they  are  not  generally  fruit  buds ;  but  if  the 


TIME  TO   PRUNE   VINES.  129 

cane  is  cut  back  to  a  well-developed  bud,  and  remains 
perpendicular,  or  nearly  so,  then  the  upper  bud  is  far 
more  certain  to  produce  fruit  than  those  below  it.  Or 
if  the  young  canes  are  bent  (either  by  art  or  by  their 
own  weight,  as  we  see  them  in  their  wild  state)  so  as  to 
check  the  flow  of  sap,  and  place  the  fully  developed  buds 
in  a  higher  position  than  those  at  the  end,  then  they 
will  push  out  and  produce  bearing  canes.  Therefore, 
the  vine  is  said  to  bear  its  fruit  at  the  top,  as  a  rule,  but 
it  does  not  strictly  refer  to  the  uppermost  buds.  4th. 
The  fruit  is  produced  upon  the  young  growing  canes, 
and  opposite  to  the  first  few  leaves  that  are  formed; 
usually  the  first  to  third  leaves  formed  will  have  a  bunch 
of  fruit  opposite;  sometimes  they  will  extend  to  five 
bunches.  When  the  shoot  has  produced  its  fifth  leaf 
without  showing  signs  of  fruit,  then  none  need  be 
expected,  for  it  is  very  seldom  that  fruit  is  produced 
beyond  that  point.  And  as  this  rule  is  applicable  to  all 
the  varieties  and  species  in  cultivation,  it  renders  it  an 
easy  matter  to  regulate  the  quantity  of  fruit  upon  the 
vine  at  the  annual  pruning,  by  simply  leaving  a  certain 
number  of  well-developed  buds,  estimating  each  one  at 
so  many  bunches  of  fruit.  Not  only  is  the  fruit  pro- 
duced near  the  base  of  the  young  canes,  but  the  best 
buds  for  producing  fruiting  canes  are  found  there  also  ; 
for  as  these  lower  buds  are  formed  early  in  the  season, 
they  become  more  fully  developed  than  those  formed 
later.  Hence  the  necessity  for  cutting  off  the  upper  por- 
tions of  every  cane  in  pruning,  instead  of  leaving  a  part 
of  them  at  full  length,  and  cutting  others  entirely  away. 
This,  however,  applies  only  to  canes  that  are  checked 
in  summer  by  pinching  off  the  extreme  ends,  for  when  a 
cane  is  allowed  to  grow  six  to  ten  feet,  or  a  greater 
length,  the  lower  buds  are  very  likely  to  be  overgrown, 
or  smothered,  and  it  becomes  necessary  to  select  buds 
for  fruiting  higher  up  on  them ;  or,  in  other  words,  we 
9 


130  THE   GRAPE   CULTURIST. 

must  prune  them  longer  than  those  which  have  been 
summer  pruned. 

The  foregoing  are  the  main  principles  to  be  observed 
in  pruning  and  training;  but  there  are  minor  points 
also  to  be  considered,  because  they  are  not  only  import- 
ant, but  are  facts  that  have  been  proven  to  be  well 
founded  by  long  and  careful  experiments.  These  points 
will  be  noticed  when  I  reach  that  part  of  the  subject 
where  they  are  particularly  applicable. 

The  following  system  of  pruning  an.d  training  was 
selected  when  writing  the  first  edition  of  this  work, 
because  it  was  old,  well  established  and  perfectly  practi- 
cable, and  it  seems  to  harmonize  with  the  general  devel- 
opment of  the  vine,  and  does  not  unnecessarily  dwarf  it, 
but  keeps  it  perfectly  under  the  control  of  the  vineyard- 
ist,  so  that  he  can  develop  the  fruit-bearing  powers  and 
check  the  excess  in  the  growth  of  wood,  and  so  distrib- 
ute the  fruit  that  no  one  part  of  the  vine  produces  more 
than  another.  It  is  not  a  new  system,  but  its  main 
features,  wnich  are  the  horizontal  arms,  and  pruning 
the  young  wood  to  short  spurs,  have  been  in  uninter- 
rupted use  in  French  vineyards  for  at  least  one  hundred 
and  fifty  years. 

It  is  true  that  some  of  my  critics  have  called  it  a 
"fancy  system,"  and  even  accused  me  of  drawing  wholly 
upon  imagination  for  illustrations,  although  the  larger 
part  of  these  were  made  from  living  vines  then  growing 
in  my  grounds  on  Long  Island.  Grape  culture  has 
changed  somewhat  during  the  past  thirty  years,  and  it 
is  quite  probable  that  the  vineyardist  of  to-day  cannot 
afford  to  give  as  much  time  and  labor  to  the  training  of 
his  vines,  with  grapes  at  from  three  to  six  cents  per 
pound,  as  when  they  would  readily  sell  at  three  or  four 
times  this  price.  But  the  value  of  the  product  does  not 
affect  the  principles  of  vine  growth,  and  when  the  nov- 
ice, or  even  experienced  vineyardist,  understands  these 


TIME  TO   PRUNE  VINES. 


131 


well  enough  to  train  vines  on  the  "arm  and  spur  sys- 
tem," as  shown  and  described  in  this  chapter,  he  will 
have  no  difficulty  in  adopting  and 
employing  those  given  in  succeed- 
ing ones.  It  is  certainly  the 
most  artistic  and  scientific  of  all 
the  systems  heretofore  introduced 
or  invented,  and  it  demonstrates 
the  susceptibility  of  the  vine  to 
respond  to  the  influence  and 
guidance  of  the  mechanical  skill 
of  the  vineyardist.  The  follow- 
ing method  of  low  training  is 
especially  recommended  for  vine- 
yards, particularly  where  strong 
winds  prevail  and  render  it  dif- 
ficult to  grow  vines  on  high  trel- 
lises. Plant  the  vines  in  rows, 
six  feet  apart,  and  the  vines  eight 
feet  apart  in  the  row,  and  let  but 
one  cane  grow  the  first  season ; 
keep  it  tied  to  the  stake,  and 
pinch  back  the  laterals,  to  con- 
centrate the  growth  into  the  one 
cane.  The  rows  may  run  east 
and  west,  or  north  and  south  ; 
perhaps  east  and  west  would  be 
preferable  in  more  northern  lo- 
calities, but  the  difference  in  this 
latitude  is  scarcely  perceptible. 
If  the  rows  run  east  and  west, 
the  leaves  will  be  mostly  on  the 
southern  side;  but  when  north 
and  south,  they  are  about  equally 
disposed  on  both  sides  of  the 
trellis.  Fig.  40  shows  the  vine 
as  it  should  appear  at  midsum-  FIG.  40. 


132 


THE  GRAPE  CULTUKIST. 


mer ;  A  is  a  lateral  that  has  been  stopped  three  times ;  B 
has  been  stopped  twice ;  c  but  once.  This  cane  is  to  be 
cut  back  the  next  season  to  within  twelve 
to  fifteen  'inches  of  the  ground,  and  only 
the  upper  two  buds  are  allowed  to  grow,  all 
others  being  rubbed  off.  From  these  upper 
two  buds  two  canes  are  produced,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  41,  each  one  of  which  should  have 
the  same  treatment  as  did  the  single  one  of 
f  b  the  previous  season.  The  second  season 

the  vine  will  usually  produce  three  bunches 
*-v         i     of  fruit  on  each  cane  ;  and  if  it  is  strong 
>  and  vigorous,  these  may  be  allowed  to  ma- 

ture ;  but  if  the  vine  is  not  strong,  they 
should  be  removed  on  their  first  appear- 
ance. The  canes,  at  this  age,  should  be 
from  eight  to  twelve  feet  long,  and  at  least 
half  an  inch  in  diameter.  If  much  smaller 
than  this,  one  of  them  should  be  cut  away, 
and  the  other  cut  back  to  two  buds,  and 
two  canes  should  be  grown,  as  in  the  pre- 
vious season.  When  strong  vines  are 
planted,  and  good  culture  is  given  them, 
they  will  be  ready  for  training  at  the  end 
of  the  second  season.  The  trellis  should 
now  be  built,  if  it  has  not  been  made  before. 
(For  description  of  trellis,  and  how  it  is 
built,  see  Chapter  XIV.)  The  two  canes 
of  the  vines  are  now  shortened  to  four  feet, 
bent  down  in  opposite  directions,  and  laid 
against  the  lower  bar  of  the  trellis  to  form 
arms.  Select  five  or  six  of  the  buds  on  the 
upper  side  of  the  arms  thus  laid  down,  to 
be  grown  into  upright  canes,  making  a 
mark  on  the  trellis  bar  opposite  to  each. 
FIG.  41.  If  the  vines  have  grown  strong,  the  buds 


TIME  TO   PRUNE  VINES.  133 

will  be  from  six  to  eight  inches  apart,  in  which  case 
every  bud  on  the  upper  side  may  be  allowed  to  remain. 
From  the  marks  opposite  the  buds  stretch  No.  16  gal- 
vanized wire  to  the  bar  above,  fastening  each  end  se- 
curely by  winding  about  the  bar  or  otherwise.  Instead 
of  now  fastening  the  vine  to  the  trellis,  it  is  better,  but 
not  absolutely  necessary,  to  bring  the  ends  down  near 
the  ground,  and  fasten  them  there  with  hooked  pegs,  as 
seen  in  Fig.  42.  If  the  ends  are  fastened  to  the  lower 
bar  in  a  horizontal  position  at  once,  the  buds  nearest  to 
the  base  will  usually  push  first,  because  the  short  bend  in 
the  cane  at  that  point  checks  the  flow  of  sap  and  forces 
it  into  the  buds  near  by,  while  the  sap  that  flows  past 
these  buds  goes  rapidly  to  the  extreme  end  of  the  arm, 


FIG.    42. 

and  forces  the  buds  at  that  point  into  growth.  In  such 
cases  the  buds  between  those  at  the  base  and  the  extreme 
end  will  sometimes  fail  to  produce  canes.  To  avoid  this 
we  bend  the  canes  as  represented ;  this  graduates  the 
check  which  is  necessarily  given  to  the  flow  of  sap,  and 
each  bud  stands  more  nearly  the  same  chance  to  get  its 
proportion.  When  the  buds  have  all  started,  and  made 
a  growth  of  two  or  three  inches,  then  the  arms  should 
be  brought  up  level  and  fastened  to  the  side  of  the  lower 
bar.  All  buds  and  shoots  not  wanted  for  upright  canes 
should  be  broken  off,  and  so  soon  as  those  remaining  are 
long  enough  to  tie  to  the  upright  wires,  it  should  be 
done.  They  should  not  be  tied  too  close,  as  room  enough 
should  b*  left  for  them  to  grow.  It  will  sometimes  hap- 
pen, when  the  arms  are  laid  down,  that  in  selecting  buds 


134  THE   GRAPE   CULTURIST. 

for  the  upright  canes,  the  spaces  between  would  be  made 
more  nearly  equal  if  an  occasional  bud  on  the  under  side 
was  used  for  the  purpose ;  if  so,  it  may  be  done,  and  it 
will  do  equally  well,  only  it  will  not  appear  quite  so  sys- 
tematical. Fig.  43  shows  a  spur  produced  upon  a  shoot 
grown  from  an  under-side  bud. 

Each  one  of  these  upright  canes  will,  if  permitted, 
usually  produce  three  or  four  bunches  of  fruit,  and  if 
the  vine  is  very  strong  and  vig- 
orous, it  will  not  injure  it  to  do 
so.     But  unless  it  is  very  strong, 
it  is  better  to  cut  off  a  portion 
and     leave    only    one     or    two 
bunches  to  each  cane.     It  is  bet- 
ter not  to  overload  the  vine  while 
young,  as  it  will  often  seriously 
injure  its  future  growth.     When 
the   upright   canes  have  grown 
to  about  two  feet,  they  should 
be  stopped  by  pinching  off  their 
ends.      I  usually  pinch  off  the 
end  of  the  shoot  so  soon  as  it 
has  made  two  leaves  beyond  the 
last   bunch   of 
fruit,    which 
will  be  when 
the    cane    has 
from    five    to 
eight    leavec 
upon   it.     But 
FIG-  43-  we  cannot  ex- 

pect to  be  exact,  especially  when  there  is  a  large  number 
of  vines  to  go  over.  Besides,  one  cane  may  grow  more 
rapidly  than  another,  and  will  need  pinching  sooner. 
Pinching  will  cause  the  remaining  leaves  to  expand  and 
become  large,  thick  and  firm,  and  much  better  fitted  to 


TIME  TO   PRUNE   VINES. 


135 


withstand  the  atmospheric  changes  than  they  would 
otherwise  be.  The  shoots,  after  being  stopped,  will  soon 
start,  and  after  growing  a  few  inches  they  should  be 
checked  again,  as  we  wish  to  keep  them  within  the  limits 
of  the  trellis,  and  not  allow  them  to  grow  much,  if  any, 
above  it.  All  the  laterals  on  the  canes  should  be  stopped, 
as  though  they  were  on  young  vines.  Fig.  44  represents 
a  vine  at  the  end  of  the  first  season,  after  the  arms  are 
formed.  The  first  upright  cane  at  the  left  hand  of  the 
center  shows  the  position  of  the  three  bunches  of  fruit. 
Upon  this  vine  there  are  twelve  upright  canes,  six  upon 


FIO.  44. 

each  side,  which  are  distributed  on  two  arms  of  about 
four  feet  each ;  it  is  not  expected  that  the  arms  will  be 
of  an  exact  length,  but  they  need  not  usually  vary  more 
than  three  or  four  inches.  Nor  do  we  expect  to  have 
the  upright  canes  exactly  the  same  distance  apart ;  but 
if  care  is  taken  in  the  beginning  in  selecting  the  buds, 
there  will  be  no  material  difference.  No  more  fruiting 
canes  should  be  allowed  to  grow  on  one  arm  than  upon 
the  other,  nor  should  any  number  of  the  cajaes  be  allowed 
to  grow  higher  than  the  others,  and  thereby  appropriate 
more  than  their  due  share  of  nutriment.  Keep  the  vine 


136 


THE   GRAPE   CULTURIST. 


TIME   TO   PKUNE   VINES.  137 

equally  balanced  in  fruit,  foliage  and  wood.  The  vine 
referred  to  above  has  six  upright  canes,  which,  if  evenly 
distributed,  would  give  eight  inches  space  between  each, 
which  is  abundant  for  those  varieties  that  have  leaves  of 
moderate  size.  But  with  those  that  have  very  coarse 
wood  and  large  leaves,  the  distance  between  the  upright 
canes  should  be  ten  or  twelve  inches. 

The  upright  canes  are  pruned  back  the  first  year  to 
two  buds ;  the  small  cross  lines  near  the  base  of  the 
canes,  Fig.  44,  show  where  they  should  be  cut.  The 
next  year  a  cane  will  proceed  from  each  of  these  buds, 
and  all  other  shoots  which  may  start  from  the  small 
buds  near  the  arm  should  be  rubbed  off.  Or,  if  the 
buds  should  produce  two  shoots  each,  as  they  will  some- 
times do,  only  the  strongest  one  should  be  allowed  to 
grow. 

The  second  year  the  two  canes  will  each  produce 
three  or  four  bunches  of  fruit,  and  instead  of  twelve 
upright  canes  we  now  have  twenty-four,  and  allowing 
three  bunches  of  fruit  to  each,  it  gives  seventy-two 
bunches  to  each  vine,  and  this  is  not  an  over-estimate 
for  the  product  of  a  vine  the  fourth  year  after  planting. 
The  canes  are  to  be  treated  the  same,  as  regards  stop- 
ping, pinching,  laterals,  etc.,  during  each  year  of  their 
growth. 

Fig.  45  shows  a  vine  at  the  end  of  the  fourth  year, 
but  with  only  five  spurs,  with  two  canes  on  each,  making 
ten  bearing  canes  on  each  arm.  The  first  two  canes  at 
the  right  hand  of  the  center  are  represented  with  the 
three  bunches  of  fruit  upon  each.  The  cross  lines  near 
the  base  of  the  shoots  show  where  the  vine  is  to  be 
pruned  ut  the  end  of  the  fourth  year.  The  uppermost 
of  the  two  canes  is  cut  entirely  away,  and  the  other  is 
cut  back  to  two  buds. 

Fig.  46  shows  this  same  vine  as  it  appears  after 
being  pruned.  The  vine,  in  subsequent  years,  is  to  be 


138 


THE   GRAPE   CULTURIST. 


pruned  in  the  same  manner.     Fig.  47  shows  a  portion  of 
the  arm,  with  the  hase  of  the  upright  shoot,  or  spur,  as 
it  is  called.      The  cross  line  shows 
where  the  upper  cane  is  to  be  cut 
away.     Each  year  the  pruning  should 
be  reversed,  if  the   position   of  the 
lower  bud  will  admit  of  it.     That  is, 
if  we  cut  away  the  left-hand  cane  this 
season,  as  shown  in  the  last  figure, 
then  we  should  cut  away  the  right- 
hand  cane  the  next ;  in  this  way  the 
spur    will    remain    nearly    upright. 
But  sometimes  the  lower  bud  will  be 
on  the  outside  of  the  shoot  which  we 
wish  to  keep  for  the  fruit  spur.     Fig. 
48  shows  a  spur  with  the  buds  in  that 
position ;    but   we   must    prune   the 
spur  just  the  same  as  though  it  were 
on  the  opposite  side,  and   probably 
the  next  season  the  buds  on  the  young 
shoot  will  be  reversed,  and  we  shall 
be  able  to  bring  our  fruit  spur  again 
into  a  perpendicular  position.     The 
lower  bud  will  seldom  be  produced 
two  years  in  succession  on  the  out- 
side, as  shown  in  Fig. 48.     It  is  desir- 
able that  the  shoot  from  the  lower 
bud  on  the  fruit  spur  should  grow 
strong,  as  it  is  from  this  that  we  take 
the  two  buds  for  the  next  season's 
fruit  spur.     As   this  first,   or  lower 
bud,  is  seldom  more  than  one  inch 
from  the  base  of  the  shoot,  and  in 
many  of  our  best  short- jointed  varie- 
ties not  more  than  a  half-inch,  it  is 
obvious  that  we  lengthen  the  spur 


TIME  TO   PRUNE   VINES. 


139 


each  year  only  the  distance  from  the  base  of  the  shoot 
to  the  first  bud  on  it,  be  it  more  or  less.  The  annual 
increase  in  diameter  of  the  arm,  as  well  as  that  of  the 
spur,  also  lessens  somewhat  its  projection  above  the  arm. 
Taking  the  average  of  some  twenty  varieties  that  I  have 
trained  on  this  plan,  I  find  the  spurs  do  not  increase  in 
length  more  than  three-fourths  of  an  inch  each  year. 
At  the  end  of  the  fourth  year  the  vine  is  considered  as 
established,  and  as  another  vine  is  at  the  same  distance 
from  it  with  arms  extending  each  way,  of  course  the 
space  is  all  occupied,  and  the  vines  are  to  be  confined 
within  the  limits  of  eight  feet  each.  The  rows  being 


FIG.  47. 


FIG.  48. 


six  feet  apart,  we  have  nine  hundred  and  five  vines  on 
an  acre;  now  seventy-two  bunches  to  the  vine  (which 
every  vine  will  bear  if  it  is  a  productive  variety,  and  if 
it  is  not  it  had  better  be  discarded  nt  once,  unless  it 
possesses  some  extraordinary  quality  which  makes  up  for 
loss  in  quantity)  will  give  us  65,160  bunches  to  the  acre ; 
the  weight,  of  course,  will  vary  according  to  the  size  of 
the  bunch.  But  it  is  not  best  to  let  the  vines  bear  too 
much  while  young,  as  the  quality  of  the  fruit  will  not 
be  as  good  as  though  a  less  quantity  were  taken  ;  besides, 
it  is  very  likely  to  severely  check  the  growth  of  the  vine. 
Varieties  that  are  not  strong  and  rapid  growers 
may  .be  planted  nearer  together,  say  six  feet  apart  in  the 


140  THE   GRAPE   CULTUK1ST. 

row,  and  the  rows  only  five  feet  apart,  and  it  is  not  nec- 
essary that  the  trellis  should  be  so  high  by  half  a  foot, 
at  least ;  two  feet  and  a  half  between  the  bars  will  be 
sufficient  for  many  of  the  shorter  jointed  varieties. 
Sometimes  the  vines  are  planted  more  than  eight  feet 
apart,  and  only  a  part  of  the  arm  is  formed  the  first 
year,  and  the  upright  cane  nearest  the  end  is  laid  down 
the  second  year,  and  the  arm  thus  lengthened  in  this 


FIG.  49. 


way  until  the  required  length  is  obtained.  But  having 
tried  both,  I  much  prefer  planting  the  yines  so  near 
together  that  arms  can  be  formed  to  fill  up  the  space  at 
once.  Four  feet  is  about  as  long  as  it  is  safe  to  lay  down 
a  cane  at  one  time,  and  have  all  the  hMs  start  evenly. 


TIME  TO   PRUNE  VINES.  141 

"When  the  vine  becomes  old  and  very  strong,  the 
amount  of  fruit  may  be  increased  by  pruning,  so  as  to 
leave  three  buds  upon  the  spurs,  as  is  shown  in  Fig.  49 ; 
this  will  increase  the  crop  one-third.  But  there  is  dan- 
ger of  losing  the  lower  bud  if  we  increase  the  number 
beyond  this,  as  we  find  that  the  tendency  of  the  sap  is 
continually  to  the  upper  bud ;  and  when  there  are  sev- 
eral left  on  the  spur,  the  lower  one  is  apt  to  be  robbed 
by  those  above  it,  and  more  likely  to  remain  dormant 
than  when  we  prune  back  to  two  or  three. 

If  the  lower  bud  fails  to  grow,  then  we  have  to 
depend  upon  the  first  growing  one  above  it  for  the  fruit- 
ing cane  for  next  year ;  this  will  add  very  materially  to 
the  length  of  the  main  spur,  besides  injuring  the  general 
appearance  of  the  vine.  In  the  above  figure  the  dotted 
lines  (b)  show  the  position  of  the  young  cane  that  should 
grow  from  the  lower  bud,  and  a  similar  cane  will  be  pro- 
duced from  each  of  the  other  buds. 

The  cross  line  at  a  shows  where  the  old  spur,  with 
the  two  upper  shoots,  which  are  now  only  buds  in  the 
engraving,  will  be  cut  away  at  the  next  year's  pruning, 
and  the  three  buds  now  on  the  cane,  #,  will  be  left.  Too 
much  care  cannot  be  given  to  the  preservation  of  these 
spurs  on  the  arms,  for  if  one  is  broken  off  or  destroyed 
by  injudicious  pruning,  there  is  no  certainty  of  replacing 
it,  although  buds  will  sometimes  start  from  the  arm 
near  its  base,  and  from  this  a  new  spur  may  be  formed  ; 
but  it  is  better  to  preserve  the  original  spurs  than  to 
endeavor  to  replace  them  with  new  ones. 

Should  the  spurs  ever  become  so  long  as  to  be  un- 
sightly or  inconvenient,  new  arms  may  be  readily  formed 
by  allowing  the  two  center  spurs  to  produce  but  one  cane 
each,  and  these  may  grow  four  or  five  feet  long ;  at  the 
next  pruning  cut  away  the  old  arms,  and  bend  down 
these  two  canes  to  form  new  ones.  But  if  the  plan 
which  I  have  given  is  strictly  followed,  the  arms  need 


142  THE   GRAPE   CULTURIST. 

not  be  renewed  of tener  than  once  in  fifteen  or  twenty 
years. 

There  are  several  reasons  why  I  believe  the  foregoing 
method  is  one  of  the  best  systems  for  training  vines. 
1st.  The  horizontal  is  the  best  position  that  can  be  given 
to  the  vine  to  develop  its  fruiting  powers, — the  main 
object  in  all  the  various  methods  of  priming  and  train- 
ing. 3d.  The  upright  bearing  caned  being  equally  dis- 
tributed on  the  arms,  no  one  portion  of  the  vine  has  any 
advantage  given  it  over  another,  the  flow  of  sap  being 
equal  to  all  parts.  3d.  The  equal  distribution  of  the 
fruiting  canes  not  only  allows  a  free  circulation  of  air 
among  the  leaves,  but  insures  an  equal  distribution  of 
fruit.  4th.  While  the  vine  is  restricted  within  certain 
limits,  it  is  not  dwarfed,  as  some  might  suppose ;  for  a 
vine  with  two  arms  four  feet  long,  with  ten  upright 
canes  on  each,  making  twenty  canes  three  feet  long,  has 
sixty  feet  of  wood  to  be  grown  and  pruned  off  each  sea- 
son. This  quantity  is  certainly  abundant  to  give  the 
'most  vigorous  growers  sufficient  expansion  to  insure  a 
healthy  action  of  root.  Some  cultivators  suppose  that 
because  a  vine  will  grow  large  and  occupy  considerable 
'space,  if  allowed  sufficient  time  and  furnished  with 
plenty  of  nutriment,  that  it  cannot  remain  healthy  if  it 
be  restrained  within  moderate  limits.  But  this  is  a 
great  mistake,  and  the  sooner  such  ideas  are  abandoned, 
the  better  it  will  be  for  the  cause.  5th.  The  vines  being 
trained  low,  the  fruit  receives  a  greater  amount  of  heat 
than  if  more  elevated,  because  it  gets  not  only  the  direct 
rays  of  the  sun,  but  also  the  heat  reflected  from  the 
earth.  This  last  is  quite  important  in  a  northern  cli- 
mate, where  there  is  little  danger  of  getting  too  much 
heat.  6th.  The  mode  is  so  simple  that  the  most  inex- 
perienced may  understand  it ;  and  when  the  vines  are 
once  put  into  shape,  the  pruning  ever  after  is  so  nearly 
the  same  there  is  scarcely  any  danger  of  going  wrong. 


TIME   TO    PRUNE   VINES.  143 

Fig.  50  represents  a  two-tier  system  of  training  upon 
the  same  principle.  It  is  equally  as  good  as  the  single 
tier  of  arms,  but  it  usually  requires  one  year  more  to 
perfect  it,  and  the  trellis  must  be  made  considerably 
stronger,  as  its  height  offers  more  resistance  to  the  wind 
than  in  the  former  mode  of  low  training. 

It  has  one  advantage  over  the  other  mode,  as  a  larger 
number  of  vines  are  planted  to  the  acre,  producing,  con- 
sequently, an  increase  in  amount  of  fruit.  It  is  particu- 
larly valuable  where  land  is  very  expensive  and  labor 
cheap,  and  the  greatest  amount  is  desired  from  a  given 
space.  The  vines  are  planted  four  feet  apart  in  the  row, 
and  the  rows  eight  feet  apart,  which  gives  1,361  per 
acre. 

When  the  vines  are  pruned  for  forming  the  arms, 
every  alternate  vine  is  cut  back  to  within  one  or  two 
feet  of  the  ground,  and  the  others  at  the  height  of  four 
or  five  feet ;  the  upper  two  buds  on  each  one  are  allowed 
to  grow,  and  from  these  the  arms  are  made.  Those  that 
start  nearest  the  ground  are  bent  down  for  arms  on  the 
lower  bar,  and  those  at  four  or  five  feet  are  taken  for 
arms  on  the  middle  or  second  bar ;  both  sets  are  treated 
as  directed  for  training  a  single  vine.  Sometimes  those 
vines  that  are  left  four  feet  long  will  not  produce  canes 
sufficiently  strong  the  first  season  to  make  the  arms;  it 
they  do  not,  then  they  must  be  cut  back  a  second  time, 
or  until  canes  are  produced  that  are  strong  enough  for 
arms. 

The  engraving  shows  the  vine  and  trellis  complete, 
except  that  only  one  arm  is  shown  on  the  vines  on  the 
upper  tier.  The  posts  are  eight  feet  apart,  and  they 
may  be  set  opposite  to  every  alternate  vine,  as  shown,  or 
midway  between  every  other  vine ;  it  is  better  to  set 
them  between  the  vines,  if  the  trellis  is  not  built  until 
after  they  are  ready  to  train,  because  at  that  time  it  will 
be  difficult  to  set  the  posts  near  the  vines  without  dis- 
turbing the  roots. 


144 


THE   GRAPE   CTJLTTJRIST. 


TUT 


TIME  TO   PRUNE  VINES.  145 

Each  vine  has  but  two  arms,  and  the  number  of 
upright  fruiting  canes  should  be  the  same  on  each  arm, 
the  vines  being  treated,  in  every  respect,  as  described  for 
the  single  tiers.  The  vine  at  each  end  of  the  trellis  will 
have  but  one  arm,  whether  it  happens  to  be  on  the  upper 
or  lower  tier. 

The  trellis  is  represented  as  being  seven  feet  high, 
the  lower  bar  being  one  foot  from  the  ground,  and  the 
other  two  three  feet  apart ;  this  allows  of  three  feet 
growth  to  the  upright  canes,  which  is  sufficient  for  the 
strongest  growers ;  but  there  are  many  varieties  that  are 
short  jointed,  for  which  two  feet  will  do.  And  in  loca- 
tions that  are  low  or  very  level,  it  is  better  to  place  the 
lower  bar  eighteen  inches  or  two  feet  from  the  ground, 
so  as  to  insure  a  better  circulation  of  air  among  the 
lower  leaves ;  besides,  in  some  very  fine  soils,  the  fruit 
on  the  lower  tier  will  get  spattered  during  heavy  rains, 
unless  the  ground  is  mulched.  But  there  is  no  need  of 
ever  making  the  trellis  higher  than  seven  feet  in  a  vine- 
yard, and  there  is  much  inconvenience  attending  the 
tying  of  the  vine  on  a  trellis,  the  top  of  which  cannot  be 
reached  while  standing  on  the  ground. 

When  it  is  desirable  to  have  the  lower  arms  more 
than  one  foot  from  the  ground,  and  still  reserve  three 
feet  space  for  the  upright  canes,  it  may  be  done  in  this 
wise :  Place  the  lower  bar  two  feet  from  the  ground, 
the  next  three  feet  above  it — we  now  have  two  feet 
remaining  between  the  middle  and  upper  bars. 

The  upright  canes  from  the  upper  arms  may  be 
allowed  to  grow  one  foot  or  more  above  the  trellis  with- 
out support,  and  they  will  receive  no  harm  therefrom. 
Where  it  is  desirable  to  economize  in  every  way  possible, 
the  trellis  may  be  made  only  six  feet  high  (provided  the 
lower  bar  is  placed  at  one  foot  from  the  ground),  and 
the  bars  arranged  so  that  the  shoots  from  the  upper  tier 
may  be  allowed  to  grow  above  it. 
10 


146  THE    GRAPE   CULTUKIST. 

Whenever  any  of  the  upright  canes  show  a  weakness, 
the  pinching  may  be  deferred  until  they  gain  the  required 
strength.  If  the  ends  have  already  been  pinched  off, 
then  leave  two  or  three  of  the  upper  laterals  to  grow  out 
for  a  foot  or  more,  and  this  will  cause  an  extra  flow  of 
sap  into  such  canes,  and  thus  we  may  check  one  cane 
and  encourage  another.  In  this  manner  we  can  readily 
control  the  forces  of  the  vine,  directing  them  to  which- 
ever part  best  suits  our  purpose. 

In  checking  the  growth  of  vigorous  vines,  especially 
when  young,  we  will  sometimes  cause  the  main  buds  on 
the  young  canes  to  throw  out  fruit  branches  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  season,  and  on  these  will  appear  a  second 
crop  of  fruit.  This,  of  course,  is  of  no  value,  because 
there  is  not  sufficient  time  for  it  to  ripen,  even  if  the 
strength  of  the  vine  would  admit  of  its  doing  so.  I  men- 
tion the  fact  only  because  some  inexperienced  persons 
may  be  alarmed  by  seeing  a  second  crop  appearing  upon 
the  vine  in  autumn.  This  second  crop  is  certainly  pro- 
duced from  buds  that  would,  under  ordinary  circum- 
stances, remain  dormant  until  another  year,  but  check- 
ing the  growth  has  forced  them  out  before  the  proper 
time.  If  every  main  bud  on  the  young  canes  is  forced 
into  growth  except  the  two  or  three  lower  ones,  no  harm 
is  done,  for  these  last  are  all  that  are  needed ;  the  others 
we  prune  off  at  the  end  of  the  season.  There  is  little 
danger  of  the  lower  buds  starting,  particularly  on  fruit- 
ing canes.  I  have  often  severely  checked  fruiting  vines, 
sometimes  stopping  the  young  canes  at  the  fourth  bud, 
but  even  this  did  not  cause  the  lower  two  buds  to  start. 
And  when  the  canes  are  not  pinched  until  they  have 
produced  their  fifth  to  eighth  leaf,  as  I  have  recom- 
mended as  the  general  rule,  then  there  is  not  the  least 
danger  of  any  of  the  lower  buds  pushing  prematurely 
into  growth. 

If  the  young  canes  are  allowed  to  grow  unchecked, 
the  lower  bud  upon  them  will  seldom  become  sufficiently 


TIME   TO   PRUNE   VINES.  14? 

developed  to  produce  a  vigorous  fruiting  cane  the  suc- 
ceeding year.  That  it  should  be  so  developed  is  all-im- 
portant when  vines  are  trained  with  horizontal  arms  and 
spur  pruned,  and  in  no  way  can  this  be  accomplished 
except  by  checking  the  cane  while  growing. 

To  ihe  novice  this  stopping  of  the  young  canes, 
tying,  pinching  laterals,  removing  tendrils,  etc.,  may 
appear  to  be  a  tedious  and  expensive  operation,  and 
sometimes,  when  vigorous  growing  varieties  are  planted 
in  very  rich  soils,  it  is  so ;  but  under  ordinary  circum- 
stances, when  the  vines  become  fully  established,  very 
little  trouble  will  be  experienced  upon  this  point. 

The  young  canes  will  have  to  be  stopped  about  three 
times  during  the  summer,  and  at  the  time  of  doing  this 
the  laterals,  if  need  be,  should  be  pinched,  and  tendrils 
removed.  On  old  vines  the  laterals  will  seldom  need 
stopping  more  than  once,  unless  they  are  overdosed  with 
manure. 

Opposite  Arms. — In  cutting  back  the  young  vines 
for  the  purpose  of  producing  two  shoots  for  arms,  it  is 
apparent  that  the  upper  two  buds  will  not  be  exactly 
opposite,  and  that  one  of  the  arms  will  be  higher  than 
the  other.  This  may  be  remedied  somewhat  by  bending 
the  short  piece  of  two-year-old  wood  at  the  base  of  the 
upper  bud ;  but  this  cannot  always  be  turned  at  an  angle 
so  short  that  one  of  the  arms  will  not  be  a  little  higher 
than  the  other.  It  is  no  great  matter  if  it  is,  but  when 
it  is  desirable  to  have  the  arms  appear  to  start  from  the 
same  point,  the  vine  may  be  treated  in  the  following 
manner : 

When  the  vine  is  strong  enough  to  make  arms  it 
should  be  bent  down  into  a  horizontal  position,  and  tied 
to  the  bar  of  the  trellis,  all  the  laterals  being  stopped 
except  the  one  at  the  angle  near  the  bar. 

Fig.  51  shows  two  vines  upon  a  two- tier  trellis ;  A,  A, 
are  the  two  laterals  that  have  been  allowed  to  srrow 


148 


THE   GRAPE   CULTUKIST. 


unchecked.  The  bending  of  the  growing  canes  will 
check  the  flow  of  sap  in  them,  'while  the  laterals,  A,  A, 
will  grow  very  rapidly. 


If  the  vines  are  vigorous  and  the  canes  are  bent 
down  in  midsummer,  the  laterals  will  often  grow  suffi- 
ciently strong  by  fall  to  make  the  arms.  If  they  do  so, 
cut  them  off  at  four  feet  and  tie  them  to  the  bars,  the 


TIME   TO    PRUNE  VINES.  149 

same  as  the  main  canes.  The  two  arms  will  then  appear 
to  have  started  from  the  same  bud.  But  if  the  lateral 
does  not  grow  sufficiently  strong  to  be  used  for  an  arm, 
it  should  be  cut  entirely  away  at  the  time  of  the  annual 
pruning. 

The  main  cane  on  the  lower  bar  should  be  cut  off 
where  it  crosses  the  vine  next  to  it,  and  the  cane  on  the 
upper  bar  at  a  point  directly  above  the  main  trunk  of 
the  lower  vine.  If  we  fail  to  get  an  arm  from  the  lateral 
the  first  season,  we  may  allow  the  main  cane  to  remain 
in  its  position,  and  permit  so  many  buds  to  grow  from 
it  as  we  desire  for  the  upright  fruiting  canes ;  but  the 
bud  which  is  at  the  base  of  the  lateral,  A,  we  will  allow 
to  grow  up  until  long  enough  to  make  the  arm,  in  place 
of  that  which  we  failed  to  get  from  the  lateral.  At  the 
end  of  the  second  season  we  bend  this  down,  and  form 
an  arm  precisely  as  would  have  been  done  with  the  lat- 
eral ;  and  the  vine  will  appear  the  same,  except  that  one 
of  the  arms  is  one  year  older  than  the  other,  and  of 
course  it  is  considerably  larger.  To  remedy  this  differ- 
ence in  appearance,  the  upright  canes  on  the  two-year- 
old  arm  should  be  cut  back  to  one  bud,  instead  of  two, 
as  would  have  been  done  if  both  arms  had  been  perfected 
the  first  year,  allowing  only  single  upright  canes  on  both 
arms  this  season.  The  cane  that  is  bent  down  the  first 
season  will  usually  produce  fruit  the  second ;  but  it  is 
best  not  to  let  it  produce  more  than  one  bunch  upon  each 
upright  cane,  unless  it  is  very  strong.  The  object 
should  always  be  to  subdue  the  vine,  but  not  to  weaken 
it,  and  if  it  is  necessary  to  commence  training  it  the  first 
season  after  planting,  it  should  be  done ;  and  it  is  far 
less  trouble  to  get  control  of  the  vine  while  young,  and 
there  is  less  danger  of  injuring  it  than  if  we  wait  until 
it  has  spread  its  roots  and  branches  far  and  wide  before 
we  undertake  to  confine  it  within  certain  contracted 
limits. 


150  THE   GRAPE    CULTURIST. 

This  fact  should  be  borne  in  mind,  that  the  expan- 
sion and  multiplication  of  roots  depends  as  much  upon 
the  extent  and  number  of  branches  that  are  allowed  to 
grow,  as  the  growth  of  the  branches  does  upon  that  of 
the  roots. 

Therefore  to  control  the  whole  plant  we  have  only 
to  control  the  top,  and  this  is  done  chiefly  by  checking 
the  branches  while  growing,  for  if  the  vine  is  allowed  to 
perfect  its  canes,  it  will  certainly  perfect  a  correspond- 
ing number  of  roots,  each  of  which  is  capable  of  absorb- 
ing a  certain  quantity  of  nutriment,  and  sending  it  up- 
ward into  the  branches ;  and  every  year  that  the  vine  is 
allowed  to  grow  unchecked,  so  much  more  does  it  in- 
crease the  difficulty  of  bringing  it  under  control. 

Oblique  Arms. — In  many  parts  of  the  country 
the  grape  vine  is  not  sufficiently  hardy  to  withstand  the 
cold  of  winter  without  protection,  and  there  are  very 
few  locations  in  the  Northern  States  where  this  would 
not  be  beneficial  to  many  of  the  varieties  now  in  cultiva- 
tion. Even  if  the  vine  itself  is  not  materially  injured, 
the  fruit  buds  are  often  so  weakened  by  cold  that  they 
fail  to  produce  as  much  or  as  good  fruit  as  they  other- 
wise would.  With  the  systems  of  training  that  I  have 
given,  and  others  frequently  adopted,  it  is  not  only 
inconvenient  to  protect  the  vines,  but  it  would  also  be 
very  expensive.  There  is  no  method  of  protection  that 
is  so  cheap  or  practical  as  that  of  laying  down  the  vines 
and  covering  them  with  earth  ;  but  to  do  this  they  must 
be  trained  in  such  a  manner  that  they  may  be  bent 
down  without  breaking  the  main  stem,  or  otherwise 
injuring  them. 

When  trained  with  the  two  arms  they  cannot  be 
laid  down  without  bending  the  main  stem  over  to  one 
side,  which  would  be  difficult  to  do,  particularly  after 
the  vine  has  become  large.  The  vine  may  be  trained 
with  one  arm,  and  this  could  be  laid  down  more  conven- 


TIME  TO    PBUNE  VINES. 


151 


iently  than  when  there  were  two ;  but  still  it  cannot  be 
laid  flat  without 
bending  the  main 
stem,  or  straight- 
ening the  angle 
which  is  formed 
in  making  the  hor- 
izontal arm.  To 
surmount  all  the 
difficulties  met 
with  in  the  com- 
mon modes  of 
training,  and  still 
continue  upon  the 
arm  and  renewal 
system,  I  have 
adopted  what  I 
call,  for  the  want  ^ 
of  a  better  name,  P 
the  oblique  sys-  P 
tern.  The  vines 
are  planted  three 
feet  apart  in  the 
row,  and  the  rows 
six  feet  apart ;  this 
allows  2,074  vines 
to  the  acre.  The 
vines  are  planted 
in  the  same  way  as 
for  other  modes  of 
training,  and  but 
one  cane  allowed 
to  grow  the  first 
year.  In  the  fall 
the  vines  are  cut 
off  to  about  four 


152  THE    GRAPE   CULTUEIST. 

feet,  and  laid  down  and  covered  with  earth — four  or  five 
inches  deep  is  usually  sufficient.  The  next  spring  re- 
move the  earth  and  straighten  up  the  vine.  Build  the 
trellis  in  the  same  manner  as  described  for  low  trained 
vines  with  two  arms ;  that  is,  four  feet  high  and  three 
feet  between  the  bars.  Fig.  52  shows  the  system  in  its 
progressive  stages.  The  vine  on  the  left  shows  the  one 
strong  cane  at  full  length ;  the  next  vine  after  it  has 
been  pruned,  and  wi^i  the  single  upright  bearing  canes ; 
the  third  vine  as  it  appears  complete  at  the  end  of  the 
third  year ;  the  fourth  vine  (d)  shows  the  same,  pruned 
and  laid  down  ready  for  covering. 

If  good  strong  vines  are  planted,  the  system  can  be 
brought  to  completion  in  the  third  season ;  but  strong 
and  vigorous  canes  must  be  obtained,  in  all  cases,  before 
commencing  the  training.  The  vines  are  trained  at  an 
angle  of  forty-five  degrees,  and  the  bearing  canes  being 
perpendicular,  they  consequently  make  the  same  angle 
with  the  vine  that  the  vine  does  with  the  ground. 

This  is  the  highest,  or  greatest  angle,  to  which  vines 
can  be  carried  without  giving  the  upper  shoots  on  the 
arms  so  much  the  advantage  over  the  lower  ones  that 
there  will  be  no  certainty  of  the  lower  ones  pushing  into 
growth  without  bending,  or  otherwise  distorting,  the 
canes. 

We  will  suppose  that,  at  the  end  of  the  first  season, 
we  have  a  vine  as  shown  at  the  left  of  the  engraving.  It 
is  then  laid  into  position,  as  seen ;  we  then  cut  it  off  at 
the  point  where  it  crosses  the  perpendicular  wire,  leaving 
it  an  inch  or  two  beyond  it,  so  that  it  can  be  securely 
tied.  The  cane,  when  cut  off,  will  be  about  four  and 
one-half  feet  long.  It  may  now  be  laid  down  by  the  side 
of  the  trellis  and  covered  with  earth.  In  the  spring 
take  up  the  vine  and  tie  it  to  the  trellis  ;  and  to  be  sure 
of  getting  the  correct  angle,  let  the  point  where  the  cane 
crosses  the  lower  bar  and  the  point  where  it  is  tied  to 


TIME   TO    PRUNE   VINES.  153 

the  upright  wire  be  both  equal  distances  from  the  base 
of  the  wire.  The  vine  should  be  made  as  straight  as 
possible,  so  that  the  sap  shall  not  be  checked  in  its  flow. 
If  it  is  not  disposed  to  be  straight,  a  lath  should  be  nailed 
on,  reaching  at  the  proper  angle  from  the  lower  to  the 
upper  bar,  and  the  vine  tied  to  it.  When  the  buds  start, 
select  five  or  six  for  the  upright  canes,  the  same  as  when 
the  arms  are  trained  horizontally. 

The  first  upright  may  start  a  few  inches  below  the 
lower  bar,  as  shown  in  the  engraving,  or  the  bar  may  be 
placed  at  six  inches  above  the  ground,  provided  the  soil 
about  the  base  of  the  vine  is  kept  covered  with  mulch 
to  keep  the  fruit  clean.  Each  of  the  uprights  will  pro- 
duce fruit,  but  unless  the  vine  is  very  strong,  a  portion 
of  it  should  be  removed. 

The  flow  of  sap  will  sometimes  cause  the  upper 
shoots  to  grow  a  little  faster  than  the  lower  ones ;  if  so, 
pinch  oif  the  ends  so  soon  as  the  fifth  leaf  is  formed  on 
them,  and  leave  the  lower  canes  until  they  have  eight  or 
nine  leaves.  The  growth  of  the  canes  will  usually  be 
very  regular  when  the  vines  are  laid  in  straight,  and  at 
the  angle  named.  At  the  end  of  the  second  year  the 
bearing  canes  should  be  pruned  to  two  buds ;  the  cross 
lines  at  £,  Fig.  52,  show  the  point  where  to  cut  off. 

As  the  vines  are  to  be  protected,  there  is  no  neces- 
sity for  leaving  an  extra  bud  to  be  cut  off  in  spring,  as 
recommended  for  unprotected  vines.  In  locations  where 
it  is  necessary  to  protect  vines,  the  warm  weather  usually 
comes  on  so  rapidly  after  it  commences,  that  it  would 
not  do  to  prune  the  vines  after  they  are  uncovered. 

The  next  season  two  canes  are  produced  from  the 
two  buds,  and  in  the  fall  the  cane  which  starts  from  the 
upper  bud  of  the  two  is  removed,  cutting  through  the 
spur,  as  previously  shown,  and  the  other  cane  cut  back 
to  two  buds  ;  the  cross  line  at  c,  Fig.  53,  shows  the  point 
at  which  it  should  be  removed.  Upon  the  right  hand 


154 


THE   GRAPE    CULTURIST. 


of  the  figure,  and  over  the  vine  that  is  laid  down,  the 
trellis  is  shown  as  it  appears  with  all  the  perpendic- 
ular wires.  The  trellis,  as  here  shown,  is  only  two 

feet  between  the 
bars,  and  its  whole 
height  only  three 
feet,  the  upright 
canes  on  the  upper 
portion  of  the  arm 
being  allowed  to 
grow  above  the  up- 
per bar.  This  they 
may  be  allowed  to 
do  when  it  is  desir- 
able to  practice  the 
strictest  economy. 
Fig.  53  shows  a 
space  of  twelve  feet, 
g  as  occupied  with 
^  four  vines  trained 
S  with  oblique  arms  ; 
only  two  posts  are 
represented,  but  it 
is  best  to  place  the 
posts  not  more  than 
eight  feet  apart. 
When  a  row  of 
vines  trained  on 
this  system  is 
pruned  and  laid 
down,  the  vines 
will  overlap  each 
other  a  little;  but 
the  end  of  one  may 
be  laid  by  the  side 
of  the  trunk  of  the 


TIME   TO    PRUNE   VINES.  155 

next,  and  so  on  throughout.  In  laying  them  down,  one 
person  should  hold  down  the  vine  while  another  covers 
it,  and  as  the  vine  has  to  be  bent  only  one-half  the  dis- 
tance that  it  would  to  be  trained  upright,  there  is  no 
difficulty  in  laying  it  down  quite  flat.  No  straw  or  any 
similar  material  should  be  used  in  covering  the  vines,  as 
it  only  furnishes  a  harbor  for  mice. 

If  the  soil  is  so  wet  and  heavy  that  there  is  danger 
of  injury  to  the  buds,  a  little  sand  should  be  put  on  next 
to  the  vine  before  the  earth  is  put  on.  The  buds  will 
not  be  injured  in  any  ordinary  dry  soil,  provided  the 
vines  are  not  covered  until  the  ground  becomes  cool,  and 
are  not  allowed  to  remain  in  the  ground  too  late  in 
spring. 

The  three  systems  that  have  been  described  are  the 
same  in  principle,  only  the  details  are  varied  to  suit  dif- 
ferent circumstances,  and  these  details  may  be  varied 
indefinitely,  so  long  as  we  do  not  undermine  the  founda- 
tion upon  which  the  structure  is  built. 

Wherever  a  variety  is  grown  that  is  naturally  unpro- 
ductive, or  one  that  produces  so  small  a  bunch  or  berry 
that  it  does  not  exhaust  the  vine  in  the  same  proportion 
that  the  larger  varieties  do,  then  one  of  the  canes  may 
be  pruned  a  little  longer,  say  four  to  six  buds,  it  being 
at  the  same  time  bent  over  at  an  angle,  so  that  the  lower 
bud  will  be  forced  to  produce  a  strong  cane  for  another 
year.  These  modifications,  to  suit  different  varieties 
and  circumstances,  will  suggest  themselves  to  the  vine- 
yardist,  if  he  will  think  as  he  works.  It  is  impossible 
to  point  out  every  phase  which  the  different  cases  will 
assume,  particularly  when  there  are  so  many  varieties 
under  cultivation,  each  of  which  has  its  own  peculiarity 
of  growth. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

GARDEN"   CULTURE. 

The  greatest  obstacles  in  the  way  of  cultivating  the 
grape  in  gardens,  particularly  in  cities  and  villages,  are, 
the  want  of  circulation  of  air,  and  the  excess  of  shade, 
or  both.  Still,  with  these  difficulties  there  are  some 
advantages ;  protection  from  cold  in  winter,  and  greater 
heat  in  summer,  which  cause  the  fruit  to  ripen  early,  so 
that,  upon  the  whole,  there  is  about  the  same  chance  of 
success  in  city  gardens  as  in  the  open  country. 

There  are  few  gardens,  either  in  city  or  country, 
where  there  may  not  be  found  a  sunny  spot  sufficiently 
large  to  accommodate  a  few  vines.  It  is  often  the  case, 
in  cities,  that  the  only  spot  that  the  sun  reaches  in  the 
whole  garden  is  covered  with  a  brick  or  stone  walk. 
When  this  is  the  case  it  does  not  prevent  the  planting  of 
the  vine,  as  the  walk  may  be  taken  up,  the  soil  beneath 
it  made  deep  and  rich,  the  vine  planted,  and  the  walk 
re-laid,  leaving  the  top  of  the  vine  coming  out  at  one 
side.  Or  the  vine  may  be  planted  on  the  side  of  the 
walk,  and  kept  trained  to  a  stake  until  it  has  produced 
one  long  stout  cane.  Then  take  up  the  walk  between  it 
and  the  building,  or  wall,  on  which  we  desire  to  train  it, 
remove  the  poor  soil  and  substitute  that  which  is 
rich,  for  two  feet  wide  and  the  same  in  depth,  and 
lay  down  the  vine  in  this,  bring  up  the  cane  on  the 
other  side,  and  replace  the  walk. 

This  is  a  much  better  plan  than  to  place  the  roots 
near  or  against  the  foundation  of  a  building,  because  in 
such  a  position  they  usually  receive  too  much  heat  in 
summer  and  are  too  wet  in  winter. 

156 


GARDEN   CULTUKE.  157 

The  roots  of  the  vine  will  grow  almost  as  readily 
under  a  pavement  as  anywhere,  provided  the  soil  is  not 
too  wet ;  the  surface  of  the  soil  being  covered,  it  seldom 
becomes  dry,  arid  the  pavement  absorbs  a  great  amount 
of  heat,  which  passes  through  it  to  the  soil,  furnishing 
sufficient  to  keep  up  a  healthy  action  of  the  roots.  The 
most  important  thing,  in  preparing  a  place  for  a  vine,  is 
to  secure  proper  drainage,  because  where  there  is  much 
shade  the  soil  is  usually  very  wet ;  and  to  avoid  injury 
to  the  roots  from  excess  of  moisture,  deep  trenching  or 
drainage  is  indispensable.  It  may  not  always  be  neces- 
sary to  dig  very  deep  at  the  exact  point  where  the  vine 
is  to  be  planted;  in  fact,  this  would  more  often  be 
injurious  than  otherwise.  But  let  the  deepest  digging 
be  at  some  distance  from  it,  so  that  the  water,  as  it 
descends,  may  be  carried  away  from  the  vine,  instead  of 
being  drawn  under  it. 

One  of  the  most  common  errors  committed  in  tree, 
as  well  as  vine  planting,  is  that  of  digging  deep  holes  at 
the  point  where  the  plant  is  to  be  set,  and  then  filling 
them  up  with  loose  soil,  and  in  this  place  the  roots. 
These  holes  only  serve  to  drain  the  surrounding  soil, 
receiving  moisture  instead  of  repelling  it.  This  would 
certainly  be  beneficial  in  very  porous,  dry  soils,  but  in 
wet  ones  it  is  injurious.  If  the  ground  can  not  all  be 
trenched,  let  the  holes  be  made  large,  and  at  the  point 
where  the  vine  is  to  be  set,  not  more  than  eighteen 
inches  deep,  and,  at  the  outside,  two  feet  deep ;  this  will 
cause  the  water  to  settle  away  from  the  vine.  When  the 
soil  is  very  heavy,  it  is  best  to  dig  a  trench  and  set  the 
vine  at  one  end,  letting  the  bottom  of  the  trench  descend 
from  the  vine  to  the  farthest  point ;  any  old  rubbish, 
such  as  brick,  stone,  bone,  etc.,  may  be  placed  in  the 
bottom  of  the  trench  to  secure  a  better  drainage.  When 
a  number  of  vines  are  to  be  planted,  a  long,  wide,  and 
deep  trench  should  be  made  and  filled  with  good  soil ; 


158  THE    GEAPE   CULTURIST. 

this  will  make  what  is  usually  termed  a  border.  Four 
feet  wide  and  two  feet  deep  will  answer  every  purpose, 
unless  the  method  of  training  to  be  adopted  requires  the 
vines  to  be  planted  very  near  together ;  if  so,  then  it 
may  be  necessary  to  make  the  border  six  or  eight  feet 
wide. 

When  the  border  is  first  made  it  should  be  a  few 
inches  above  the  level  of  the  surrounding  surface-soil,  as 
it  will  usually  settle,  and  frequently  require  a  consider- 
able addition  of  soil  to  prevent  it  being  too  low.  If  the 
border  were  made  only  level  with  the  surface  of  the  gar- 
den, when  it  settled  it  would  carry  the  vines  down  with 
it,  and  when  filled  up,  the  roots  of  the  vines  would  be 
buried  too  deep.  When  an  outlet  can  be  secured,  either 
into  some  hollow  or  sewer,  it  is  well  to  lay  a  drain  along 
the  bottom  at  one  side  of  the  border.  This  drain  may 
be  made  of  tile,  brick  or  stone,  and  should  descend,  at 
least,  one  foot  in  a  hundred,  to  secure  the  rapid  passage 
of  the  water. 

Drains  made  of  stone  should  be  covered  with  sods, 
straw,  wood  shavings,  or  some  similar  materials,  before 
the  trench  is  filled,  as  these  will  prevent  the  fine  soil 
entering  and  filling  it  up.  In  wet  and  heavy  soils  it  is  a 
great  point  gained  to  secure  a  thorough  and  permanent 
drainage. 

The  materials  used  in  making  the  border  may  be 
the  same  as  are  used  in  the  vineyard,  but  as  they  are  not 
always  to  be  had,  others  may  be  used,  avoiding  always 
all  fresh,  unfermented  manures.  If  old  manures  cannot 
be  had,  make  the  border  entirely  of  soil,  and  if  clayey, 
add  sand ;  use  ground  bones  and  charcoal  to  put  around 
the  roots  when  first  planted,  and  then  apply  the  fresh 
manure  to  the  surface,  forking  it  in  after  it  has  become 
rotted.  A  little  lime,  plaster  or  ashes  may  be  added  to 
the  border,  but  not  in  any  great  quantity,  as  there  is 
more  danger  of  applying  too  much  of  such  materials 


GARDEN    CULTURE.  159 

than  too  little.  There  is  usually  an  abundance  of  mate- 
rials about  a>  city  or  village  that  may  be  used  for  manure, 
but  most  of  them  should  be  used  with  caution,  as  it  is 
difficult  to  determine  what  injurious  ingredients  they 
may  contain.  It  is  much  the  safest  way  to  use  stable 
manure,  when  it  can  be  had,  or,  in  place  of  it,  ground 
bones,  poudrette,  etc.,  adding  sods,  leaves,  or  charcoal, 
as  much  to  lighten  the  soil  and  make  it  more  friable,  as 
for  their  fertilizing  qualities. 

One  of  the  most  pernicious  practices  in  cities  is  the 
continual  drenching  of  the  grape  borders  with  slops  from 
the  house;  this  has  become  common  from  the  well- 
known  fact  that  they  often  contain  a  large  amount  of 
manurial  ingredients.  But  the  large  amount  of  water 
accompanying  them  usually  renders  them  more  injurious 
than  beneficial.  An  occasional  application  of  this  kind 
may  be  of  service,  if  the  borders  are  well  drained  ;  but  a 
better  way  of  saving  such  materials  is  to  dig  a  hole  or 
make  a  cistern  in  some  out-of-the-way  place ;  then  add 
charcoal  or  dry  muck  sufficient  to  absorb  the  moisture, 
and  when  the  place  becomes  filled,  take  out  the  manure, 
add  a  little  plaster,  and  then  it  is  ready  for  use.  In  this 
manner  it  becomes  deodorized,  and  is  really  an  excellent 
manure  for  the  vine. 

There  is  one  other  point  upon  which  a  word  of  cau- 
tion may  not  be  amiss,  namely,  not  to  apply  top-dress- 
ings of  strong  manures  in  summer,  for  this  will  usually 
cause  the  vines  to  produce  a  late  growth,  which  it  is 
always  desirable  to  avoid.  The  best  time  to  apply  a  top- 
dressing  is  in  the  fall,  as  it  then  serves  to  protect  the 
roots  during  the  winter,  and  the  fertilizing  materials  are 
carried  down  by  the  rains,  and  are  ready  for  use  when  the 
vine  starts  in  the  spring,  and  a  steady,  uniform  growth 
is  insured.  It  is  not  advisable  to  grow  any  plants  except 
the  vines  in  the  border ;  but  where  there  is  a  scarcity  of 
room,  a  few  bulbous-rooted  or  annual  plants  may  b? 


160  THE  GRAPE   CULTU11IST. 

grown.  If  they  are  of  the  latter  kind,  it  is  best  that 
they  should  be  trailing  plants,  such  as  verbenas,  portu- 
laca,  etc.,  as  these  spread  over  the  soil  and  operate,  in 
a  measure,  as  a  mulch ;  still,  they  absorb  more  moisture 
from  the  soil  than  their  shade  assists  in  retaining.  No 
deep-rooted  perennial  plant  should  be  planted  near  the 
vine.  Neither  should  large  shrubs  or  trees  be  placed 
where  they  will  continually  shade  the  ground,  for  the 
roots  of  the  vine,  as  well  as  the  branches,  require  warmth. 

Position  of  Border. — The  position  of  the  border 
will  depend  somewhat  upon  that  of  the  garden  ;  but  any 
exposure  except  a  direct  northern  one  will  do,  and  even 
this  will  answer,  provided  the  place  is  not  in  the  shade 
more  than  half  the  day.  The  best  position,  however,  is 
upon  the  south  side  of  a  building,  or  high  fence,  or  wall. 
An  eastern  or  western  exposure  will  answer  every  pur- 
pose, because  the  heat  and  light  are  far  more  intense  in 
such  positions  than  in  the  open  vineyard. 

Training  the  Vines. — When  the  vines  are  grown 
in  large  open  gardens,  where  there  is  plenty  of  room, 
the  same  general  system  of  training  may  be  followed 
that  has  been  given  for  the  vineyard.  The  two-tier  sys- 
tem, as  shown  in  Fig.  50,  is  preferable  for  garden  cul- 
ture to  any  of  the  others,  except  in  more  northern  sec- 
tions of  the  country ;  then  the  oblique  arm  is  the  best. 

Circumstances,  however,  will  often  occur,  when  it 
will  be  necessary  to  deviate  somewhat  from  any  of  the 
plans  given,  to  better  suit  the  particular  location  in 
which  we  are  obliged  to  plant.  These  variations  may  be 
innumerable;  still,  if  no  fundamental  principle  is  inter- 
fered with,  success  is  just  as  certain  as  though  the  plans 
laid  down  were  strictly  followed.  For  instance,  we  have 
endeavored  to  show  that  vines  are  more  productive  and 
yield  better  fruit  when  trained  horizontally  than  perpen- 
dicularly ;  but  it  will  make  very  little  difference  whether 
the  arms  are  three  feet  long,  or  thirty,  provided  they 
are  not  extended  too  far  in  any  one  season. 


GARDEX   CULTURE. 


161 


Neither  does  it  matter  whether  the  arms  start  from 
one  foot  above  the  ground,  or  at  ten,  so  far  as  principle 
is  concerned ;  but  when  it  is  desirable  to  produce  arms 
at  a  great  height,  we  must  do  it  gradually,  and  not 
endeavor  to  accomplish  it  in  one  season.  In  the  vine- 
yard, the  best  possible  position  for  the  arms  may  be  one 
foot  from  the  ground,  while  in  a  garden  surrounded  by 
high  walls,  ten  feet  might  be  far  better  than  any  point 
below  it. 

It  is,  therefore,  impossible  to  give  a  plan  that  will 
suit  every  position ;  but  the  horizontal  arm  should  be 


FIG.  54. 

the  main  point  aimed  at,  whether  it  be  long  or  short, 
high  or  low.  The  vines  may  also  be  trained  with  only 
one  arm  instead  of  two. 

Fig.  54  shows  a  vine  with  one  arm  having  only  five 
spurs,  but  it  may  be  extended  by  bending  down  the 
right-hand  upright  cane,  and  in  this  manner  the  arm 
may  be  lengthened  as  required.  The  season  previous  to 
extending  the  arm  the  end  cane  should  be  allowed  to 
grow  four  or  five  feet  long,  instead  of  stopping  it  at  the 
usual  height,  so  as  to  have  a  strong  cane  to  lay  down. 
Three  to  four  feet  is  about  as  much  as  should  be  added 
11 


162  THE   GRAPE   CULTUEIST. 

to  the  arm  in  one  season,  for  if  a  cane  of  more  than  four 
feet  is  laid  down,  some  of  the  buds  will  often  fail  to  grow. 
The  vine  may  be  planted,  if  need  be,  several  feet  from 
where  we  wish  to  train  it,  and  the  arm  be  allowed  to 
extend  that  distance  without  producing  upright  canes, 
as  it  will  make  no  difference  in  the  result  whether  the 
sap  flows  through  one  or  ten  feet  before  it  reaches  the 
leaves. 

Four  Tiers  of  Arms. — Sometimes  it  is  desirable 
to  fill  a  certain  space  which  is  higher  than  would  be 
occupied  by  two  tiers  of  arms ;  if  so,  plant  the  vines 
only  two  feet  apart,  instead  of  four,  and  form  four  tiers 
in  the  same  way  as  we  formed  the  two  tiers.  Or  twjo 
tiers  of  arms  may  be  formed  from  one  vine,  although  it 
will  take  a  year  or  two  longer  than  it  would  to  plant 
more  vines,  and  only  take  two  arms  from  each  one. 

Fig.  55  is  a  very  correct  representation  of  an  old 
Hartford  Prolific  vine,  with  two  tiers  of  arms  from  the 
same  vine.  The  arms  are  eight  feet  long,  so  that  the 
vine  covers  a  space  sixteen  feet  long  and  only  six  feet 
high.  There  are  ten  spurs  upon  each  arm,  making  forty 
in  all,  giving  eighty  upright  bearing  canes,  and  it  is 
allowed  to  bear  from  two  hundred  and  fifty  to  three 
hundred  bunches  annually.  One  season  it  produced 
two  hundred  and  fifty-six  bunches. 

I  have  introduced  this  vine  here  for  two  purposes  : 
First,  to  show  how  an  old  vine  that  has  been  grown 
without  any  system  of  training  may  be  brought  into  a 
good  form ;  and  second,  that  I  may  more  thoroughly 
impress  upon  the  mind  of  the  reader  the  importance  of 
training  vines  with  horizontal  arms,  for  the  purpose  of 
improving  the  quality  of  fruit  as  well  as  controlling  the 
growth  of  the  vine.  Having  an  old  Hartford  Prolific 
vine  in  my  garden,  the  fruit  of  which  could  usually  be 
shaken  off  so  soon  as  ripe,  I  thought  I  would  try  and  see 
if  the  arm  and  spur  system  would  have  any  effect  upon 
it,  and  in  any  degree  remedy  this  defect. 


GARDEN   CULTURE. 


163 


164  THE   GRAPE   CULTUEIST. 

It  was,  until  destroyed,  as  shown  in  the  engraving, 
and  the  fruit  not  only  improved  in  size  and  flavor,  but 
it  adhered  so  well  to  the  stem,  that  I  have  kept  it  for 
two  months  after  picking,  and  still  the  berries  would 
not  fall  from  the  bunch  if  handled  carefully.  I  do  not 
attribute  the  improvement  in  the  fruit  entirely  to  the 
horizontal  arms,  but  only  in  part ;  for,  without  doubt, 
the  spur  pruning  and  the  close  pinching  of  the  young 
shoots  assist  very  much  in  the  development  of  the  fruit. 
The  method  used  to  obtain  these  arms  was  as  follows : 

The  season  before  I  attempted  to  train  it  I  cut  the 
whole  vine  back  to  within  about  three  feet  of  the  ground, 
and  let  it  produce  new  shoots  from  whatever  part  they 
happened  to  come.  It  being  an  old,  untrained  vine,  as 
I  have  stated,  it  produced  several  very  strong  young 
canes,  and  I  cut  away  all  but  four ;  the  two  upper  ones 
started  about  three  feet  from  the  ground ;  these  I  cut 
off  to  four  feet,  and  laid  them  down  horizontally ;  they 
reached  to  A,  A.  One  of  the  two  lower  canes  sprung 
from  the  old  stem,  about  one  foot  from  the  ground,  and 
just  where  it  was  wanted  for  the  lower  arm,  but  there 
was  no  young  cane  opposite  to  form  the  other.  There 
was,  however,  one  that  came  out  from  near  the  roots, 
and  this  was  used  for  the  other  lower  arm,  by  twisting  it 
around  behind  the  old  stem,  and  bringing  it  down  oppo- 
site the  first  arm ;  the  two  arms  were  then  cut  off  at  A,  A. 
The  lower  arms  were  trained  on  the  same  level,  although 
one  of  them  came  out  a  foot  or  more  below  the  other. 
This  makes  no  difference,  except  in  appearance,  as  it 
does  not  matter  whether  the  arms  start  from  buds  nearly 
opposite  or  not ;  all  that  is  requisite  is  to  bring  them  to 
nearly  the  same  height  before  they  are  allowed  to  pro- 
duce leaves  or  fruit.  The  next  season  the  two  end  canes 
were  allowed  to  grow  long  enough  to  lay  down  and 
extend  the  arms  to  their  full  length.  In  selecting  the 
buds  for  upright  canes,  I  reserved  some  of  those  on  the 


GARDEN   CULTURE. 


165 


under  side  of  the  arm ;  the  canes  from  these  bear  fruit 
just  as  well  as  those  from  the  upper  side. 

I  would  not  recommend  this  mode  of  training  for 
vineyard  or  garden,  except  in  cases  like  the  above,  where 
it  is  desirable  to  bring  an  old,  strong  vine  into  the  arm 
system,  and  the  owner  has  plenty  of  time,  and  desires  to 
exercise  his  skill  in  bringing  the  vine  into  such  a  form. 
Vines  that  have  been  trained  with  only  two  arms  may, 
after  they  become  old,  be  allowed  to  produce  an  extra 
tier,  but  the  sap  will  usually  flow  with  greater  force  into 


FIG.  56. 

the  upper  arms,  and  necessitate  the  checking  of  the 
canes  on  them  sooner  than  on  the  lower  ones.  To  pro- 
duce a  second  tier  of  arms  upon  a  vine  having  only  one 
tier,  the  bearing  cane  nearest  the  center  is  allowed  to 
remain  at  the  time  of  the  annual  pruning,,  and  the  end 
cut  off  at  the  point  where  it  is  desirable  to  have  the  arms 
start.  The  next  season  the  upper  two  buds  on  it  are 
allowed  to  grow  for  the  arms,  and  the  following  season 
they  are  laid  down  for  a  second  tier. 


166  THE   GRAPE   CULTURIST. 

Double  Stem. — A  few  years  since  I  had  some  vines 
growing  in  a  border  on  the  south  side  of  a  wall.  They 
started  so  early  that  most  of  the  young  shoots  were  cut 
off  by  a  late  frost ;  consequently  the  buds  which  I  hud 
selected  for  arms  were  destroyed.  The  vines  being 
young,  new  shoots  started  from  below  the  ground.  I 
cut  away  all  the  old  stem,  and  selected  two  of  the  strong- 
est shoots  that  came  up,  and  cut  off  the  others.  These 
two  shoots  were  kept  tied  to  a  stake  during  the  season, 
the  laterals  pinched,  etc.  The  next  spring  the  two 
canes  were  laid  down  for  arms  ;  those  for  the  upper  tier 
were  twisted  around  each  other,  and  then  laid  down  and 
fastened  to  the  middle  bar. 

Fig.  56  shows  one  of  these  vines  when  it  became 
well  established.  Accidents  will  often  happen  in  vine- 
yards, as  well  as  in  gardens,  rendering  it  necessary  to 
have  recourse  to  some  such  plan  to  restore  lost  arms 
without  loss  of  time.  This  is  perfectly  practicable,  and 
the  final  result  will  be  as  satisfactory  as  though  there 
had  been  no  interference  with  the  plan  laid  down  at  the 
beginning.  Many  other  variations  from  the  usual  course 
of  proceeding  might  be  giv7en,  but  I  have  mentioned 
enough  to  show  that  a  general  principle  may  be  taken  as 
a  guide  in  grape  culture,  and  still  be  varied  to  suit  the 
different  circumstances  attending  it. 

Trellises  in  Gardens. — The  same  form  of  trellis 
described  for  vineyards  may  be  used  in  the  garden,  vary- 
ing it  in  length,  height,  etc.,  to  suit  the  position  in 
which  it  is  placed,  as  well  as  to  meet  the  wants  of  any 
particular  vine.  A  trellis  is  indispensable,  as  the  vines 
should  never  be  fastened  directly  on  the  side  of  a  build- 
ing or  fence,  but  should  be,  at  least,  six  inches  from 
them ;  a  foot  is  still  better,  as  this  allows  a  free  circula- 
tion, of  air  behind  the  vine,  and  prevents,  in  a  great 
measure,  the  burning  of  the  leaves,  which  usually  occurs 
when  vines  are  laid  against  the  boards  or  wall.  Besides, 


GARDEN   CULTURE. 


167 


V 


the  surface  on  which  the  vine  is  trained  will  soon  become 
defaced  by  the  constant  rubbing  of  the  leaves  against  it, 
while  the  accumulation  of  dust  and  moist- 
ure will  cause  the  rapid  decay  of  the 
boards ;  and  even  a  stone  or  brick  wall  will 
be  injured  more  or  less  by  having  vines 
trained  against  it.  If  the  trellis  is  sus- 
pended by  iron  or  wooden  brackets,  no  ap- 
parent injury  will  be  done  to  the  surface 
behind  it. 

Training  to  Stakes. — There  is  sel- 
dom a  garden  so  small  but  there  is  room 
for,  at  least,  one  grape  vine,  though  it  is 
often  the  case  that  there  is  a  place  for  a 
vine  but  no  room  for  a  trellis ;  when  this 
occurs,  the  vine  may  be  trained  to  a  stake, 
or  a  number  of  them ;  and  when  so  trained 
they  may  be  planted  among  shrubbery,  in 
flower  beds,  or  upon  the  lawn.  There  is 
nothing  that  will  add  more  to  the  beauty 
of  the  garden,  or  produce  a  better  effect, 
than  vines  planted  in  groups  or  scattered 
here  and  there,  as  is  usual  with  ornamental 
shrubs  and  plants.  The  vines,  in  such  sit- 
uations, should  always  be  kept  low,  and 
never  permitted  to  produce  long  and  naked 
stems,  which  would  become  unsightly  and 
mar  the  beauty  of  the  garden  when  they  / 
become  old.  Prepare  the  soil  as  for  vines  ^ 
in  other  situations,  and  grow  but  one  cane 
the  first  season ;  then  prune  it  down  to 
eighteen  or  twenty-four  inches  from  the 
ground ;  the  next  season  allow  but  two 
canes  to  grow ;  pinch  off  the  tops  of  these 
when  they  have  grown  five  or  six  feet,  so 
that  they  shall  not  only  ripen  their  wood, 


FIG.  57. 


168  THE   GEAPE   CULTUEIST. 

but  become  more  stocky.     Fig.  57  shows  the  vine  with 
two  canes  at  the  end  of  the  second  season.     If  the  vine 

was  large  and  vigorous  when 
planted,  it  will  usually  pro- 
duce fruit  the  second  season  ; 
if  so,  pinch  off  the  top  of  each 
cane  when  it  has  grown  about 
two  feet ;  this  will  assist  the 
development  of  the  lower 
leaves,  which  are  so  important 
to  the  proper  development  of 
the  fruit.  When  they  have 
started  and  grown  a  foot  or 
two  more,  stop  them  again , 
they  will  usually  need  check- 
ing several  times  during  the 
season.  The  canes  should  be 
neatly  tied  to  a  stake,  and  the 
laterals  may  be  allowed  to 
grow  a  foot  or  more  before 
being  checked,  as  they  assist 
in  hiding  the  stake,  and  their 
own  weight  causes  them  to 
slightly  droop,  giving  a  more 
pleasing  effect  than  when  all 
are  kept  tied  close  ;  for  wh^n 
vines  are  grown  in  a  flower 
garden  we  endeavor  to  com- 
bine the  ornamental  and  use- 
ful. The  third  year  the  vine 
with  two  canes  should  be  cut 
back  to  two  buds  each.  From 
these  buds  we  produce  four 
FIG.  56.  shoots,  each  of  which  will 

usually  bear  three  to  five  bunches  of  fruit,  so  that  we 
have  from  twelve  to  twenty  bunches  on  the  vine.     Fig, 


GABDEN   CULTURE. 


169 


170  THE   GKAPE   CULTUKIST. 

58  shows  the  vine  with  four  canes,  as  it  will  be  at  the 
end  of  the  third  season.  The  vine  may  now  be  pruned 
in  the  same  manner  as  before ;  that  is,  each  cane  is  cut 
down  to  two  buds,  and  eight  canes  be  allowed  to  grow 
the  fourth  year ;  or  two  may  be  cut  entirely  away,  and 
leave  but  two  buds  on  the  others.  If  eight  canes  are 
produced  they  will  require  one  additional  stake  or  a  trel- 
lis, so  that  they  may  be  spread  out  and  give  a  better 
opportunity  for  growth.  Fig.  59  shows  the  vine  with 
eight  canes,  as  it  appears  when  trained  on  a  trellis. 


FIG.  60. 

This  vine  may  be  again  pruned  in  the  same  manner,  and 
twelve  or  sixteen  canes  allowed  to  grow;  and  this  is 
essentially  the  same  system  practiced  in  some  of  the 
vineyards  at  the  present  time,  and  it  answers  very  well 
if  a  portion  of  the  canes  are  cut  away  each  year,  so  that 
they  will  not  become  too  much  crowded. 

The  system,  when  carried  to  the  extent  of  thirty  to 
forty  canes,  becomes  quite  complicated,  and  it  is  difficult 
to  distribute  the  fruit  so  widely  and  evenly  as  when  the 
vine  is  trained  with  arms.  But  when  the  vines  are 


•;- 

GARDEN   CULTURE.  171 


grown  iii  small  gardens,  four  or  six  canes  are  as  many 
as  should  be  allowed  on  those  trained  to  stakes. 

There  is  no  difficulty  in  keeping  the  vines  within  a 
small  space,  and  with  the  main  stem  only  a  foot  or  two 
high.  All  that  is  necessary  is  to  keep  the  young  growth 
checked  during  the  summer,  and  when,  pruning  the  vine 
leave  only  those  buds  which  are  required  to  produce 
fruiting  canes. 

I  test  all  the  new  varieties  in  this  way,  never  going 
to  the  expense  of  erecting  trellises  for  them  until  they 
have  proved  themselves  worthy  of  it.  The  vines  will 


remain  just  as  healthy  when  grown  in  this  manner  as 
when  allowed  to  spread  over  a  space  of  fifty  or  one  hun- 
dred feet.  I  am  well  aware  that  theorists  assert  that  the 
vine  must  have  room  to  expand  and  extend  its  branches 
as  it  grows  old ;  but  one  fact  is  worth  any  number  of 
theories,  and  there  are  thousands  of  vines  in  Europe 
that  are  from  fifty  to  one  hundred  years  old,  the  main 
stems  of  which  are  not  two  feet  high.  These  vines  are 
pruned  back  to  the  stump  every  year,  and  yet  they  live 
and  bear  fruit  of  the  best  quality.  We  have  no  such 


172  THE   GRAPE   CULTURIST. 

Tines  in  this  country,  nor  is  there  any  necessity  for  eve/1 
having  any,  because  there  are  better  plans  in  use ;  but 
t^Lere  is  no  reason  why  our  indigenous  varieties  may  not 
be  dwarfed  as  well  as  the  European  kinds.  Fig.  60 
shows  one  of  the  old  vines  of  Europe.  This  vine  repre- 
sents what  is  termed  "head  pruning;"  the  vine  being 
pruned  in  close  to  the  stump  every  year,  and  the  acces- 
sory buds  are  mainly  depended  upon  for  producing  the 
bearing  canes. 

Fig.  61  shows  another  form,  which  is  called  "buck 
pruning."  The  head  is  allowed  to  divide  into  several 
parts,  thereby  allowing  it  to  produce  more  fruit  than 
upon  those  that  are  pruned  to  one  head.  This  is  an  old 
Hungarian  mode,  and  it  is  still  practiced  in  many  parts 
of  Europe. 

If  the  reader  will  refer  to  Figs.  44,  45  and  50  he  can 
see,  at  a  glance,  the  improvements  which  have  been 
made  in  the  form  of  training  the  vine,  from  the  days  of 
the  ancient  Romans  down  to  the  present  time.  And  it 
will  be  readily  seen  that  they  are  all  founded  upon  the 
same  principle,  the  only  difference  being  that  the  top  of 
the  vine  is  extended  more  in  one  than  in  the  other. 
They  are  all  pruned  on  the  renewal  system — that  is,  all 
the  young  shoots  are  cut  back  every  year. 

Within  the  range  of  these  four  plans  and  their  vari- 
ations are  comprised  all  the  successful  systems  that  have 
ever  been  invented.  The  head  pruning  is  practiced 
upon  the  poorest  of  soils,  and  the  buck  pruning  on  soils 
that  are  only  moderately  rich,  and  the  other  two  upon 
rich  soils,  and  with  the  strongest  growing  varieties. 

There  is,  however,  a  system  of  training  in  use  in 
Lombardy  that  differs  from  any  of  those  given ;  but  it 
should  not  be  called  an  artificial  system,  because  the 
vines  are  allowed  to  grow  upon  trees,  as  they  would  in 
their  wild  state,  no  particular  method  of  training  or 
pruning  being  adopted.  The  vines  bear  as  well  as  they 


GARDEN   CULTURE.  173 

would  in  their  wild  state,  but  the  process  is  a  slow  and 
tedious  one  at  best. 

Girdling  the  Vine. — This  operation,  though  often 
producing  remarkable  results,  is  still  of  questionable 
utility.  That  it  causes  the  fruit  to  grow  much  beyond 
its  natural  size  is  certain,  but  the  quality  is  never  im- 
proved, and  usually  very  much  injured.  The  practical 
results  of  such  an  operation  seem  to  be,  to  cause  the 
fruit  to  assume  the  appearance  of  ripeness  much  earlier 
than  it  would  otherwise,  and  become  so  much  increased 
in  size  as  often  to  take  the  prizes  at  horticultural  shows, 
where  the  judges  are  often  influenced  by  appearance 
instead  of  quality.  Many  a  dropsical  cluster  of  grapes 
has  been  awarded  a  premium  over  the  rich,  well-ripened 
cluster  of  the  same  variety,  merely  because  it  had  a  fine 
appearance.  But  some  of  our  leading  horticultural  soci- 
eties now  notify  exhibitors  that  grapes  from  girdled 
vines  will  not  be  allowed  on  the  exhibitors'  tables. 

The  girdling  may  be  done  at  any  time  in  the  spring 
after  the  vine  starts,  up  to  the  time  the  fruit  is  fully 
grown.  But  unless  it  is  done  several  weeks  before  the 
fruit  commences  to  ripen,  it  will  have  but  little  effect. 
The  best  time  to  perform  the  operation  is  just  before,  or 
soon  after,  the  fruit  is  set.  The  mode  of  operation  is  as 
follows  :  Cut  away  a  ring  of  the  bark,  from  one-fourth 
to  one-half  inch  wide,  clear  to  the  true  wood.  It  may 
be  performed  on  old  wood,  or  upon  the  young  canes 
when  they  have  made  a  foot  or  two  of  growth,  but  the 
last  year's  wood  is  preferable,  and  it  should  be  done  only 
on  that  which  you  intend  to  prune  away. 

The  incision  is  always  made  below  the  bunch  which 
it  is  desired  to  affect.  The  bunches  above  the  incision 
become  much  larger  than  those  below  it ;  this  is  said  to 
be  caused  by  the  obstruction  of  the  downward  flow  of 
the  sap  to  the  roots. 

The  practice  of  girdling  the  vine  for  the  purpose  of 
affecting  the  fruit  is  supposed  to  have  been  invented 


174 


THE   GRAPE  CULTURIST. 


about  1745,  by  Col.  Buchatt,  of  Metz,  in  France.  For 
this  he  was  awarded  a  premium  by  the  Agricultural 
Society  of  France.  It  was  claimed  that  the  invention 
would  be  of  great  value  in  hastening  the  maturity  of  the 
grape,  as  well  as  improving  the  quality  ;  but  it  is  doubt- 
ful if  either  of  these  results  has  been  obtained  in  its 
practice. 

Removing  the  Leaves. — There  are  many  persons, 
in  cities  especially,  who  are  in  the  habit  of  removing  a 

portion  of  the  leaves  from  their 
grapevines  just  before  the  fruit 
begins  to  ripen,  for  the  pur- 
pose, as  they  say,  of  hastening 
it.  This  is,  perhaps,  one  of 
the  most  absurd  ideas  that 
could  be  possibly  entertained, 
as  the  grape  ripens  better  in 
the  shade  than  when  exposed 
to  the  sun  ;  besides,  the  ripen- 
ing process  is  conducted  almost 
entirely  by  the  leaves,  the 
grape  being  one  of  those  fruits 
that  must  be  ripened  on  the 
vine  or  not  at  all ;  and  if  it  is 
picked  before  ripe,  the  process 
is  immediately  stopped,  there 
being  no  further  improvement 
in  flavor.  If  the  leaves  near  the  fruit  are  taken  off, 
ripening  is  not  only  checked,  but  often  entirely  stopped. 
The  fruit  that  is  exposed  to  the  direct  rays  of  the 
sun  after  the  leaves  have  been  taken  away  may  change 
its  color,  but  it  seldom  ripens.  It  is  not  only  necessary 
that  there  should  be  good  healthy  leaves  on  the  fruiting 
cane,  but  they  should  be  near  the  fruit.  Every  one  who 
has  seen  grapes  upon  the  vine  must  have  observed  that 
there  is  always  a  leaf  opposite  to  every  bunch  of  fruit; 


FIG.  62. 


GARDEN    CULTUEE.  175 

that  this  leaf  is  of  great  importance  to  that  particular 
bunch  is  certain.  In  Fig.  62  the  connection  between 
the  two  is  shown ;  a  is  a  portion  of  the  stem  of  a  bunch 
of  fruit ;  c  is  the  leaf-stalk ;  the  pith  is  shown  in  the 
center,  being  the  broad,  dark  line  running  lengthwise  of 
tlie  cane ;  this  occupies  more  than  one-third  of  its  diam- 
eter, but  is  divided  at  d  by  wood  which  unites  the  two 
sides  of  the  stem.  Now  whether  the  sap  crosses  directly 
through  the  young  cane  from  leaf  to  fruit,  or  around 
the  pith,  is  not  positively  known,  but  that  there  is  a  con- 
nection between  them  by  which  the  fruit  is  benefited, 
can  be  readily  demonstrated  by  removing  the  leaf  early 
in  the  season.  When  this  is  done  the  fruit  is  not  so  per- 
fect as  when  it  remains. 

This  imperfection  is  not  altogether  owing  to  the 
loss  of  shade  which  the  leaf  afforded,  because  if  the 
game  amount  of  shade  is  given  the  fruit  artificially,  it  is 
still  more  or  less  affected.  If  the  lateral  (b)  remains 
with  a  leaf  or  two  upon  it,  the  injury  to  the  fruit  is  not 
so  marked,  because  its  leaves  perform,  in  part,  the  func- 
tions of  the  one  removed.  One  great  object,  in  pinching 
off  the  end  of  the  growing  canes,  is  to  cause  the  leaves 
to  grow  larger,  thicker,  and  better  able  to  assist  in  per- 
fecting the  fruit ;  therefore,  the  main  leaves  on  the  stem 
should  never  be  removed,  and  especially  let  those  that 
are  near  or  opposite  the  fruit  be  carefully  preserved. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

VARIOUS  SYSTEMS  OF  PRUNING  AND  TRAINING. 

In  giving  a  synopsis  of  some  of  the  most  prominent 
modes  of  training  the  vine,  I  shall  not  attempt  to  describe 
them  at  length,  nor  go  into  the  minute  details  which 
may  be  necessary  in  the  perfection  of  any  of  these  sys- 
tems, but  only  aim  to  show  the  general  principles  in- 
volved. It  may  also  be  well  to  emphasize  this  reference 
to  principles  which  govern  and  control  the  growth  of 
the  vine,  for  they  are  not  only  fundamental,  but  univer- 
sal, and  we  must  submit  to  them  whether  we  would  or 
no,  or  whether  our  vineyards  are  located  in  Europe, 
Asia,  Australia  or  America.  Of  course,  we  may  modify 
practice,  and  prune  long  or  short,  high  or  low,  give  the 
fruit  much  or  little  shade,  corresponding  with  the  nat- 
ural habit  of  the  varieties  under  cultivation,  as  well  as 
the  exigencies  of  climate  and  soil,  provided  we  keep 
within  certain  limits  and  do  no  violence  to  principles 
involved  in  the  growth  and  production  of  fruit  on  plants 
under  domestication.  That  error  will  often  accompany 
truth,  and  creep  in  among  the  most  simple  plans,  as 
well  as  among  those  that  are  intricate,  is  quite  certain ; 
and  when,  at  last,  the  error  is  discovered,  we  wonder 
that  it  could  have  remained  so  long  hidden  under  so 
slight  a  covering. 

If  we  examine  the  various  systems  of  training  of  the 
vine  that  have  been  in  use  for  the  last  two  thousand 
years,  we  cannot  fail  to  see  that  very  little  real  progress 
has  been  made,  for  all  of  those  which  have  continued  in 
use  for  any  length  of  time  appear  to  have  been  founded 

176 


SYSTEMS  OF  PRUNING  AND  TRAINING.  177 

upon  what  we  of  the  present  time  call  the  renewal  sys- 
tem— that  is,  the  young  canes  are  cut  back  every  year, 
and  from  buds  on  these  are  produced,  not  only  fruiting 
canes,  but  other  buds,  from  which  fruiting  canes  will 
again  be  produced ;  and  thus  two  things  are  kept  in 
view,  fruit  this  year,  and  fruit  buds  for  the  next,  and 
both  in  close  proximity.  By  this  method  the  vine  pro- 
duces an  annual  crop,  never  resting  longer  than  nature 
designed  it  should ;  as  nature  seems  to  have  appointed 
a  period  for  rest  and  for  labor  for  all  the  members,  of 
both  the  animal  and  vegetable  kingdom.  But  with  this 
known  fact,  so  apparent  to  the  observing  mind,  there 
seems  to  have  been  men  so  anxious  to  assist  nature,  that 
they  overstepped  her  laws  and  endeavored  to  give  her  a 
longer  period  of  rest  at  one  time,  and  more  work  at 
another  than  she  required,  and  in  this  way  the  alternate 
renewal  system  of  training  the  vine  was  invented. 
Although  this  system  of  training  may  be,  in  some  of  its 
various  modifications,  quite  successful,  the  principle 
upon  which  the  whole  structure  rests  is  an  erroneous 
one,  and  if  the  same  is  transferred  to  the  animal  king- 
dom, we  might  claim  that  the  best  way  to  treat  a  horse 
would  be  to  allow  him  to  remain  in  perfect  idleness  one 
year,  and  then  work  him  up  to  his  utmost  strength  the 
succeeding  one.  It  is  true  that  a  kind  of  half  alternate 
renewal  system  has  long  been  practiced  in  some  of  the 
various  forms  of  training  the  vine,  as,  for  instance,  the 
arms,  or  larger  bearing  canes  are  renewed  every  alternate 
year,  or  at  longer  periods,  but  there  is  no  year  of  rest  in 
these,  for  after  the  vine  has  reached  maturity  it  is  ex- 
pected to  produce  an  annual  crop  of  fruit. 

In  the  first  edition  of  this  work  I  gave  considerable 
space  to  a  description  of  a  system  of  training  the  vine, 
introduced  by  the  late  William  Bright,  of  Philadelphia, 
to  which  he  gave  the  name  of  Single  Stem  Dwarf,  Ee- 
newal  System.  In  this  system  the  inventor  attempted 
13 


178 


THE   GRAPE    CULTURIST. 


to  renew  the  whole  vine  instead  of  a  part  of  it ;  but  a 
few  years  later  Mr.  Bright  admitted  that  the  system 
wound  itself  up  at  the  end  of  the  third  season,  as  I  had 
predicted ;  consequently  nothing  more  need  be  said 
about  it  here. 

Another  of  these  imaginary  and  impossible  alternate 
renewal  systems  of  training  is  shown  in  Fig.  63.  In 
this  it  is  proposed  to  renew  the  upright  canes  growing 


FIG.  63. 

from  horizontal  arms,  and  in  the  same  way  that  Mr. 
Bright  proposed  to  renew  the  canes  from  the  main  stem 
near  the  roots.  In  brief,  it  is  proposed  to  start  eight  or 
more  upright  canes  from  the  two  arms,  and  at  the  next 
season's  pruning  cut  down  every  alternate  cane  at  A,  leav- 
ing the  other  canes,  B,  for  producing  fruit  from  the 
lateral  new  shoots,  supposing  the  bunches  would  be  pro- 
duced as  shown  at  C.  But,  unfortunately  for  the  sys- 


SYSTEMS   OF   PRUNING    AND   TRAINING. 


179 


tern,  at  the  next  pruning  there  would  be  no  huds  from 
which  to  produce  new  bearing  wood  at  the  base  of  the 
cane,  C,  and  the  vine  would  become  an  almost  worthless 
stump.  I  should  not  have  thought  it  worth  while  to 
again  refer  to  this  old  and  unscientific  mode  of  training 
vines,  had  I  not  noticed  several  similar  ones  recently 
described  in  essays  on  grape  culture,  reminding  me  that 
ideas,  however  absurd,  often  attain  a  great  age. 

In  one  very  large  work  published  only  last  year 
(1893),  I  find  an  illustration  of  what  is  called  a  "Re- 
newal System,"  but  in  the  vine  represented  the  annual 
canes  spring  from  two  arms,  as  I  have  shown  in  Fig.  44, 


nr 


FIG.  (54. 


Jpn  a  preceding  page ;  but  only  alternate  canes  are  shown 
In  bearing  fruit  in  this  new  renewal  system.  There  is, 
however,  no  explanation  of  the  why  or  wherefore  of  such 
a  system  of  training,  in  the  book  to  which  I  refer,  and  I 
can  only  account  for  the  alternate  fruiting  canes,  except 
upon  the  supposition  that  the  inventor  thought  it  was 
better  to  allow  five  canes  to  bear  the  entire  crop,  than  to 
distribute  evenly  among  nine.  But  the  difficulty  with 
all  such  systems  is,  that  the  vine  is  thrown  out  of  bal- 
ance, and  the  sap  is  drawn  into  the  barren  canes,  to  the 
detriment  of  those  producing  fruit.  A  similar  unequal 
distribution  of  the  sap  will  occur  where  one  cane  is  left 


I 


180  THE   GRAPE  CULTURIST. 

with  ten  buds  when  pruned,  and  another  with  but  one, 
for  the  ten  will  have  the  advantage,  although  those 
unacquainted  with  the  growth  of  vines  might  suppose 
the  results  would  be  quite  the  opposite. 

There  are  various  other  systems  of  training  in  which 
the  alternate  renewal  is  the  main  feature,  *r  is  a  part ; 
but  it  must  be  apparent  to  every  one  who  has  ever  stud- 
ied or  practiced  vine  growing,  that  the  less  alternate 
renewal  there  is  in  any  system  the  better.  It  seems  to 
be  very  difficult  to  eradicate  the  idea  that  one  portion  of 
the  vine  requires  a  partial  rest,  while  another  part  is, 
perhaps,  performing  more  than  its  due  proportion  of 
work,  and  thereby  throwing  its  forces  out  of  balance. 

Fig.  64  shows  a  vine  trained  with  horizontal  arms, 
but  with  alternate  single  and  double  fruiting  canes ;  this 
is  almost  the  alternate  renewal,  though  at  the  first  glance 
it  would  be  taken  to  be  a  strictly  renewal  system.  The 
cross  lines  near  the  base  of  the  upright  canes  will  show 
where  they  are  to  be  pruned  to  keep  up  this  plan.  On 
the  double  spur  one  of  the  canes  is  to  be  cut  entirely 
away,  and  the  other  to  one  bud,  and  the  single  cane  is 
cut  off  at  two  buds,  and  where  there  are  now  two  canes, 
next  year  there  will  be  but  one ;  and  the  single  cane  of 
this  season  will  produce  two  canes  the  next,  thus  alter- 
nating each  year.  This  plan  seems  to  be  a  very  plausible 
one ;  but  when  we  come  to  try  it,  we  find  that  the  spurs 
with  two  buds  are  inclined  to  grow  more  rapidly  than 
those  with  only  one,  for  the  simple  reason  that  the  sap 
is  drawn  to  that  point  with  two-fold  greater  power  than 
to  the  single  bud.  If  all  were  pruned  to  one  bud,  then 
the  sap  would  be  drawn  to  all  alike  ;  and  the  same  would 
be  the  case  if  all  were  pruned  to  any  other  number,  from 
one  upward.  A  hint  upon  such  points  as  these  will,  I 
think,  be  sufficient,  for  it  is  a  very  easy  matter  to  try 
pruning  a  few  vines  upon  both  plans  before  fully  adopt- 
ing either. 


SYSTEMS   OF   PRUNING    AND   TRAINING.  181 

Munson's  Alternate  Renewal  System. — Prof. 
T.  V.  Munson,  in  giving  his  system  of  training  the  grape 
to  the  public,  through  the  pages  of  the  American  Agri- 
culturist, in  1890,  page  265,  says:  "To  obtain  best 
results,  American  vines  generally  require  'alternate  re- 
newal' of  bearing  wood  and  few  long  bearing  arms." 
Then  follows  a  description  of  the  system,  which  begins 
with  the  building  of  the  trellis,  probably  because  it  is 
the  only  new  and  distinctive  feature,  consisting  mainly 
in  the  setting  of  two  posts  in  the  same  hole,  and  these 
every  thirty- two  feet  in  the  line  of  the  rows  of  vines. 
These  two  posts,  instead  of  being  placed  in  an  upright 
position,  are  set  flaring  outward  at  the  top,  so  that  they 
will  be  about  two  feet  apart  when  fixed  in  place.  Now 
along  these  two  posts  No.  11  galvanized  wires  are 
stretched,  and  both  at  the  same  height  (four  feet)  from 


FIG.  65.     THREE-YEAR-OLD  VINE. 

the  ground,  these  two  wires  forming  a  kind  of  open, 
flat  platform,  or  trellis,  on  which  the  vines  are  allowed 
to  spread  out  over  and  rest  when  they  reach  a  bearing 
age,  as  shown  in  Fig.  65.  The  vines  are  planted  eight 
feet  apart  along  the  line  of  the  trellis,  and  the  first  sea- 
son the  young  canes  are  led  up  to  the  vines  on  strings 
provided  for  the  purpose.  When  this  young  cane  has 
reached  the  wire  the  head  is  pinched  off,  and  two  of  the 
terminal  buds  are  allowed  to  push  out  and  form  lateral 
canes  for  arms.  The  next  season  these  side  shoots  are 
pruned  back  to  near  the  point  where  they  first  touched 
the  wire,  or  we  may  presume  even  lower  if  of  weak 


182  THE   GRAPE   CULTURIST. 

growth,  although  Professor  Munson  is  silent  on  this 
point.  We  gather,  however,  from  his  illustration  of  the 
system,  that  eventually  two  arms  are  trained  on  each 
wire,  as  shown,  and  then  one-half  of  these  bearing  arms 
is  cut  away  annually,  to  he  replaced  by  new  ones  formed 
by  laying  down  strong  canes  of  the  preceding  season's 
growth,  as  practiced  in  the  old  German  bow  system, 
explained  elsewhere.  But  as  Professor  Munson  says 
nothing  about  thinning  out  canes,  rubbing  off  surplus 
buds,  summer  pinching  or  pruning,  we  presume  nothing 
of  the  kind  is  practiced,  leaving  the  bearing  and  barren 
canes  to  go  through  the  season  in  a  great  tangle  on  the 
two-foot-wide  platform  overhead.  This  system  would 
not  be  a  bad  one,  provided  the  same  rules  of  pruning, 
thinning  and  pinching  of  the  young  canes  are  adopted, 
as  practiced  in  all  others  of  like  form  and  character.  As 
might  be  expected,  the  originator  advances  various  rea- 
sons why  he  thinks  it  superior  to  all  others  in  use;  but 
there  is  only  one  which  strikes  me  as  peculiar,  and  de- 
serving of  special  notice,  and  it  is  No.  3,  in  the  list  of 
his  baker's  dozen,  to  wit:  "The  sap  required  to  make 
new  wood  for  bearing  is  not  carried  through  wood  bear- 
ing a  crop,  as  in  the  spur  system,  but  a  complete  alter- 
nate renewal  is  effected,  thus  keeping  the  plant  in  per- 
fect balance  and  meeting  the  natural  requirements  of 
the  vine." 

This  is  a  most  extraordinary  claim,  for  if  cutting 
away  one  or  two  entire  bearing  arms  on  a  vine,  and  leav- 
ing the  same  number  with  numerous  fruiting  buds,  will 
insure  a. "perfect  balance,"  then,  I  must  confess,  some- 
thing new  has  been  discovered  in  the  physiological  prin- 
ciples which  govern  the  growth  of  the  vine.  Then, 
again,  any  form  of  alternate  renewal  which  starts  above 
the  main  cane  is  not  "complete,"  because  this  main 
stem,  or  stock,  is  just  as  truly  bearing  wood  as  an  arm, 
whether  it  be  long  or  short ;  for,  at  most,  the  arm  is 


SYSTEMS   OF   PRUNING   AND  TRAINING.  183 

only  an  extension  of  the  head,  or  upper  part  of  the  vine, 
and  all  the  sap  from  the  roots  flows  through  this  old 
wood.  If  all  the  arms,  whether  their  number  be  few  or 
many,  are  pruned  to  equal  lengths,  and  the  buds  re- 
duced to  an  equal  number  on  each,  we  might  claim 
something  like  a  "perfect  balance,"  provided  that  all 
the  buds  were  at  the  top  of  the  vine  and  on  the  same 
level.  This  is  the  true  principle  upon  which  all  success- 
ful systems  of  training  and  pruning  of  the  vine  have 
been  founded,  in  all  ages  and  countries  where  the  grape 
is  known  to  flourish.  It  makes  but  little  difference,  in 
practice,  whether  we  prune  our  vines  down  to  a  stump 
two  feet  high,  and  keep  them  there  for  one  or  one  hun- 
dred years,  as  so  long  practiced  in  Europe,  in  what  is 
called  the  "buck  pruning/'  or  train  them  up  on  trees  or 
the  rafters  of  a  grapery,  on  the  "long  rod  system,"  or 
lay  down  the  canes  and  form  permanent  arms,  as  in  the 
"Thomery  system,"  one  and  all  will  produce  equally  as 
good  results ;  the  only  difference  consists  in  the  adapta- 
tion to  locations,  soils,  climates,  and  the  convenience  of 
the  cultivator. 

In  early  life  I  was  somewhat  inclined  to  believe  that 
our  indigenous  native  specie?  of  the  grape  might  rebel 
against  the  restricted  growth  to  which  the  varieties  of 
the  European  species  have  £0  long  been  subjected,  and 
to  test  the  matter  practically,  I  selected  a  few  vines  of 
our  most  rampant  growing  native  varieties,  with  which 
to  make  experiments.  The  first  of  these  was  a  Clinton, 
which  all  my  teachers  and  later  associates  declared  would 
not  submit  to  close  pruning.  However,  I  selected  a 
strong  vine,  and  the  first  season  cut  the  main  stem  down 
to  about  four  feet  from  the  ground,  and  then  tied  it  to  a 
strong  stake.  Every  year  since  it  has  been  "buck 
pruned,"  not  more  than  one  or  two  buds  at  the  base  of 
the  long  canes  being  left  to  produce  fruit  and  new  canes. 
It  has  never  failed  to  produce  an  excellent  crop  of  fruit 


184  THE   GRAPE   CULTTJRIST. 

annually,  and  now,  in  its  thirty-fourth  year,  it  is  as  vig- 
orous as  ever,  with  every  appearance  of  remaining  so  for 
a  hundred  years,  provided  it  is  pruned  in  the  same  way 
and  given  moderately  good  care. 

A  few  years  later  I  planted  a  row  of  Concords  and 
Hartford  Prolifics,  setting  the  vines  four  feet  apart  ID 


FIG.  66. 

the  row,  driving  a  strong  stake  by  the  side  of  each,  to 
support  the  main  stem.  These  vines  have  been  closely 
buck  pruned  from  the  very  first  year  (1870),  but  I  fail 
to  see  that  there  is  any  diminution  in  vigor,  health,  pro- 
ductiveness, or  in  the  size  and  quality  of  their  fruit. 


SYSTEMS  OF  PRUNING   AND  TRAINING.  185 

Of  course,  thinning  out  of  superfluous  canes  and  buds 
has  always  been  attended  to,  but  beyond  this  the  vines 
have  been  allowed  to  ramble  freely,  forming  a  rather 
intricate  network  of  bearing  canes  direct  from  an  old 
stump,  through  which  the  sap  seems  to  flow  just  as 
freely  as  it  does  through  the  younger  wood  above,  or  as 
it  will  through  an  arm  of  the  same  age. 

Single  Arm  System. — This  mode  of  training  the 
vine  appears  to  be  of  German  origin,  and  is  founded  on 
Professor  Munson's  idea  that  the  extension  of  the  head, 
or  arm  of  a  vine,  should  be  renewed  every  alternate  year, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  66.  In  this  system  the  vines  are  set 
about  four  feet  apart,  and  are  trained  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  in  the  two  arm  system,  until  the  time  of  forming 
the  arms;  then  only  one  cane  is  laid  down,  and  the 
others  cut  to  three  buds.  When  the  buds  push,  four  ta 
six  are  selected  upon  the  arms  for  upright  canes,  and  the 
others  rubbed  off.  The  three  buds  left  upon  the  other 
cane,  or  head  of  the  vine,  are  allowed  to  grow,  and  if 
the  vine  is  a  strong  one,  all  the  buds  will  produce  fruit, 
as  shown  in  the  illustration. 

The  bearing  canes  on  the  arms  are  stopped  at  the 
usual  height,  while  those  on  the  main  spur,  or  stem,  are 
allowed  to  grow  on  above  the  others,  in  order  to  secure 
a  good,  strong,  and  long  one  to  lay  down  for  an  arm  the 
next  season ;  but,  unfortunately,  this  does  not  work 
well  in  practice,  because  the  sap  will  flow  into  these 
upright  canes  growing  directly  over  the  main  stem  far 
more  freely  than  into  those  on  the  arms,  and  this  diver- 
sion of  the  sap  usually  occurs  just  at  the  time  the  fruit 
on  the  arm  needs  it  most. 

If  all  the  upright  bearing  canes  are  stopped  at  the 
same  height,  the  forces  of  the  vine  are  evenly  distributed, 
no  one  or  more  of  the  canes  having  an  advantage ;  but 
this  would  simply  reduce  the  system  to  one  of  permanent 
arm  and  spur,  and  there  would  be  no  reasonable  excuse 


186  THE   GRAPE   CULTUEIST. 

for  renewing  the  arm  annually  or  in  alternate  years, 
except  to  test  the  theory  of  old  wood  resisting  the  free 
flow  of  sap  through  it,  as  claimed  by  Professor  Munson. 
Reversing  the  Arms. — There  is  an  old  German 
plan  of  laying  down  the  arms,  which  is  quite  the  reverse 
of  those  we  have  shown.  Instead  of  the  right-hand  cane 
being  laid  down  to  the  right,  it  is  bent  over  to  the  left, 
and  the  left  one  is  bent  to  the  right,  as  shown  in  Fig.  67, 
the  object  being  to  check  the  flow  of  sap,  and  cause  the 
buds  to  break  more  evenly  than  if  the  canes  were  laid 
down  without  reversing  them.  It  does  have  this  effect 
upon  the  canes,  and  there  is  no  particular  objection  to 
it,  although  the  same  results  are  secured  when  the  arms 
are  curved  down  in  the  manner  shown  in  Fig.  42.  It 
has  been  claimed,  by  those  who  advocate  this  mode  of 


FIG.  67. 

forming  the  arms,  that  the  check  given  the  vine  by  thus 
bending  it,  continues  after  the  first  year;  this,  however, 
is  very  doubtful ;  because,  in  the  growth  of  the  vine, 
new  cells  are  formed  in  the  concentric  layers  of  the 
wood,  which  allow  a  free  passage  of  the  sap  through 
them,  whether  the  vine  is  grown  on  a  straight  line  or  on 
a  curved  one. 

German  Bow  System. — This  system  is  usually 
referred  to  as  the  "  German  bow  system,"  probably  be- 
cause it  was  first  used  in  this  country  by  some  of  the 
German  vineyardists  of  Ohio,  but  it  is  as  much  French 
as  German,  although,  as  described  in  some  of  the  French 
works  on  grape  culture,  two  stakes  are  used  instead  of 


SYSTEMS    OF   PRUNING    AND   TRAINING. 


187 


one,  and  the  bow  is  brought  down  to  an  almost  hori- 
zontal position,  forming  an  elongated  bow-like  arm. 

The  vines  are  started  the  same  as  with  other  sys- 
tems, until  we  have  obtained  two  strong  canes;  then 
one  is  cut  down  to  two  or  three  buds,  and  the  other  to 
eight  or  twelve,  according  to  the  strength  of  the  vine. 
Fig.  68  shows  the  new  cane,  as  pruned.  The  longest 


FIG.  68. 


FIG.  69. 


cane  is  then  bent,  and  forms  what  is  called  the  bow. 
Sometimes  the  end  is  brought  around  and  tied  to  the 
stake,  and  at  others  it  is  only  bent  in  a  half  circle  and 
tied  where  it  crosses  the  stake,  as  shown  in  Fig.  69. 
Two  stakes  are  sometimes  used,  so  as  to  better  support 
the  bow  when  it  is  covered  with  fruit  and  foliage.  The 
fruit  is  mainly  produced  on  the  bow,  and  the  young 


188  THE    GRAPE   CULTURIST. 

bearing  shoots  are  stopped  two  or  three  leaves  beyond 
the  last  bunch  of  fruit.  The  two  buds  left  on  the  spur 
are  allowed  to  grow  and  form  canes,  one  of  which  is 
taken  for  the  bow  next  season.  The  cane  which  forms 

the  bow  is  cut  away 
after  it  has  borne  one 
season.  The  cross  line 
at  its  base  shows  where 
it  is  to  be  cut.  Fig.  70 
shows  the  vine  as  it  ap- 
pears with  fruit.  The 
same  plan  is  pursued 
every  year;  one  of  the 
two  canes  is  cut  at  a 
sufficient  length  to  form 
the  bow,  and  the  other 
cut  back  to  two  or  three 
buds.  When  the  vine 
becomes  old  and  strong, 
two  bows  are  formed 
instead  of  one.  The  ob- 
jections to  this  system, 
are,  that  when  trained  on 
stakes  the  bearing  shoots 
have  no  support,  and 
they  swing  about,  and 
the  fruit  is  more  or  less 
damaged  by  rubbing 
against  the  leaves 
and  vine ;  when 
no.  TO.  trellises  are  substi- 

tuted for  stakes,  this  difficulty  is  removed.  Still,  the 
same  objection  remains  which  exists  in  the  single  arm 
svstem — that  is,  one  portion  of  the  vine  is  severely 
checked,  while  another  is  allowed  to  grow  freely.  The 
circulation  of  the  sap  in  the  bow  becomes  less  rapid  as 


SYSTEMS  OF   PKUHLNG    AJ*D  TRAINING. 


189 


the  upright  canes  advance,  and  the  fruit  upon  it  is  only 
partially  supplied  with  nutriment  at  the  time  when  it  is 
most  needed.  Where  wine  is  the  object,  the  bow  system 
may  answer  very  well,  as  the  fruit  is  probably  hastened 
in  maturity  by  the  severe  check  that  is  given  to  the  flow 
of  sap. 

Fig.  71  shows  a  bow  system,  as  given  by  Eubens. 
It  is  merely  a  multiplication  of  bows  upon  the  same 


FIG.  71. 


FIG.  72. 


vine.  Three  or  four  canes  are  grown,  two  of  which  ai<% 
left  at  considerable  length,  and  by  twisting  them  about 
'tfie  stake,  shoots  are  produced  which  are  bent  down  and 
form  the  bows.  It  is  merely  a  fancy  system,  and  shows 
what  can  be  done  with  the  vine ;  but  it  is  really  of  no 
practical  use. 


190  THE   GKAPE    CULTUKIST. 

Fig.  72  shows  a  system  of  serpentine  training  taken 
from  Kubens'  work.  This  plan  is  a  very  good  one  for 
garden  culture,  as  the  vines  are  trained  to  stakes  and 
pruned  low.  The  stakes  are  set  eight  inches  to  a  foot 
apart,  and  the  upper  ends  brought  together  and  fastened, 
as  shown.  The  vines  are  first  grown  with  one  cane,  the 
next  season  two,  and  the  next  with  four ;  hut  instead  ot 
cutting  them  down  to  the  two  buds,  they  are  cut  off  at 
from  two  to  four  feet,  and  the  cane  twisted  around  the 
stakes ;  this  checks  the  upward  flow  of  sap,  and  causea 
all  the  buds  to  push  on  the  whole  length  of  the  cane. 
The  next  season  four  more  canes  are  selected  from 


FIG.  73. 


among  the  new  ones  (always  choosing  those  that  are 
strong  and  from  near  the  ground),  and  the  old  canes 
are  cub  away  above  those  selected.  The  new  ones  are 
shortened,  and  twisted  around  the  stakes,  as  those  of 
the  previous  season. 

Husmann's  Bow  System. — Mr.  Husmann,  in 
his  work,  Grapes  and  Wine,  advocates  a  bow  system 
similar  to  the  one  we  have  shown  in  Fig.  71,  but  he 
trains  the  vines  on  trellises  instead  of  stakes.  This  is 
certainly  an  improvement,  because  the  vines  can  be  kept 
more  steady,  and  the  fruit  will  not  be  so  liable  to  injury 
by  the  wind.  Fig.  73  shows  two  vines  trained  with  a 


SYSTEMS   OF   PRUNING    AND   TRAINING.  191 

single  bow,  as  recommended  by  Mr.  Husmann.  The 
vine  on  the  left  hand  is  shown  as  it  appears  when  pruned 
in  spring.  The  right-hand  figure  gives  the  same  vine  in 
the  autumn  after  the  leaves  have  fallen.  A  is  the  bear- 
ing cane,  or  bow,  which  is  to  be  cut  entirely  away,  at 
the  point  shown  by  the  line  crossing  it  near  the  base. 
The  left-hand  cane  is  cut  off  at  C,  and  the  cane  B  is 
shortened  to  ten  or  fifteen  buds,  and  bent  over  to  the 
right,  to  form  the  bow  for  the  next  season.  This  system 
is  a  very  good  one  for  the  more  rampant  growers,  partic- 
ularly those  which  are  naturally  unproductive,  or  pro- 
duce only  small  bunches.  If  the  variety  trained  in  this 


FIG.   74. 

manner  produces  very  large  bunches,  it  must  be  evident 
that  the  young  bearing  canes  will  require  considerable 
care ;  for,  if  not  tied  firmly  to  the  trellis,  they  will  be 
broken  off  by  the  wind.  It  is  far  from  being  a  neat  or 
systematic  mode,  but  will  answer,  where  wine-making 
is  the  object,  and  the  appearance  of  the  fruit  not 
important. 

The  Fan  System. — This  is  a  very  old  and  com- 
mon mode  of  training  vines  on  wire  trellises,  and,  I  may 
add,  a  most  excellent  one  for  the  vineyard,  and  especially 
where  labor  is  dear  and  grapes  are  cheap.  It  does  not 


192 


THE  GRAPE   CULTURIST. 


require  any  great  amount  of  experience  or  skill  in  prun- 
ing, but  the  vineyardist  and  his  assistants  must  know 
something  of  the  nature  of  the  plants,  in  order  to  deter- 
mine how  much  or  little  bearing  wood  to  leave  at  the 
time  of  the  annual  pruning.  The  young  canes  of  the 
season  should  be  spread  out  and  tied  to  the  trellis  during 
the  summer,  somewhat  in  the  form  of  the  ribs  in  a  fan, 
this  affording  a  uniform  exposure  of  the  foliage  to  the 
sun  and  air.  The  laterals  may  be  pinched  back,  or 
entirely  removed,  and  the  strongest  canes  checked  by 
pinching,  as  in  other  systems,  thereby  equalizing  and 
distributing  the  sap  among  the  bearing  canes. 

At  the  time  of  pruning,  the  vineyardist  can  see,  at 
a  glance,  how  each  cane  should  be  cut,  as  they  are  all 
spread  out  before  him,  and  not  in  a  tangle,  as  they  are 


FIG.  75. 


certain  to  be  in  some  of  the  systems  in  vogue.  He  can 
prune  long  or  short,  according  to  the  strength  of  the 
plant,  or  of  the  individual  canes,  and  if  the  vines,  at 
first,  have  been  pruned  too  low,  he  can  gradually  change 
the  form  by  leaving  one  or  two  of  the  central  canes 
longer  than  the  others,  as  shown  in  Fig.  74.  This  sys- 
tem is  specially  adapted  to  the  smaller  varieties,  which 
are  raised  exclusively  for  wine-making,  because  it  will 
enable  the  vineyardists  to  obtain  a  fair  crop  of  fruit  from 
some  that  are  naturally  unproductive. 

The    Kniffin   System. — Of  this  system  perhaps 
more  has  been  said  and  written  than  any  other,  of  late 


SYSTEMS   OF   PRUNING  AND  TRAINING. 


193 


years,  and  it  is  claimed  to  be  largely  in  use  in  the  Hud- 
son River  grape-growing  regions.  The  vines  are  planted 
and  trained  during  the  first  two  or  three  years  as  in  all 
other  of  the  well-known  systems,  but  as  they  reach  the 
two  horizontal  wires  on  the  trellis  an  arm  is  laid  down 
and  trained  to  each,  thus  giving  a  two  story  and  a  four 
arm  vine,  as  shown  in  Fig.  75.  From  these  arms  the 
young  growth  and  bearing  canes  are  allowed  to  hang 
down  and  ramble  about  at  will,  as  shown  in  Fig.  76, 


FIG.  76. 

instead  of  being  tied  up,  as  advised  in  the  spur  and  arm 
system.  The  lower  wire  is  placed  three  and  a  half  feet 
from  the  ground,  and  the  top  one  five  and  a  half  or  six 
feet.  The  annual  pruning,  when  the  vines  become  well 
established,  consists  in  cutting  back  all  the  canes  of  the 
preceding  season's  growth,  except  those  nearest  the  main 
stem,  employing  these  for  renewing  the  two  or  four 
arms ;  but  these  arms  are  to  contain  four  or  five  buds 
each,  according  to  their  size  and  strength. 

Summer  pinching  and  rubbing  out  of  superfluous 
buds  is  recommended,  especially  when  large  and  fine 
bunches  are  desired  for  market.  Upon  the  whole,  this 
system  is  a  kind  of  half-renewal,  half-arm,  or,  to  use  a 
common  phrase,  a  hit  or  miss  mode  of  pruning  and 
13 


194  THE   GEAPE    CULTURIST. 

training,  in  which  the  vines  are  not  subjected  to  any 
definite  rule  or  form. 

That  good  grapes  in  abundance  are,  and  can  be, 
produced  on  vines  manipulated  in  this  way,  there  is  no 
doubt,  but  the  same  may  be  said  of  hundreds  of  other 
systems  of  training  in  vogue,  all  of  which  show  that  the 
prape  vine  responds  nobly  to  fair  treatment,  and  even 
to  total  neglect,  as  when  growing  in  its  native  habitats. 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

Thinning  the  Fruit. — There  are  very  few  varieties 
of  grapes,  cultivated  in  the  open  air,  that  require  the 
thinning  out  of  the  fruit  to  enable  them  to  ripen.  Most 
of  the  native  varieties  have  bunches  sufficiently  open 
and  loose  to  allow  the  air  to  circulate  freely  among  the 
berries  and  aid  them  in  ripening.  If  a  portion  of  the 
berries  are  removed,  those  remaining  will  certainly  grow 
much  larger  than  if  all  were  allowed  to  mature.  There 
are  some  varieties  that  have  naturally  very  compact 
bunches,  so  much  so  that  all  of  the  berries  will  seldom 
ripen  unless  a  portion  of  them  is  removed.  With  such 
as  these  it  is  best  to  cut  out  a  part  of  the  berries  so  soon 
^  they  are  fully  formed.  This  thinning  should  be  done 
with  a  pair  of  sharp-pointed  scissors,  cutting  out  from 
(toe-fourth  to  one-half  the  berries,  taking  them  from 
iifferent  parts  of  the  bunch,  so  that  when  it  is  fully 
grown  it  will  be  uniform,  and  the  berries  will  not  be  any 
more  crowded  upon  one  part  than  another. 

It  would  scarcely  be  practicable  to  thin  out  the  ber- 
ries of  all  the  bunches  in  a  vineyard,  and  no  one  would 


MISCELLANEOUS.  195 

think  of  cultivating  extensively  a  variety  that  required 
it ;  still,  there  are  varieties  which  are  highly  recom- 
mended by  some  persons,  that  will  seldom  mature  more 
than  half  the  fruit  that  sets.  The  bunches  of  these 
should  be  thinned.  These  varieties  often  possess  valuable 
qualities,  and  if  persons  have  time  to  give  them  the 
requisite  care,  really  excellent  fruit  may  be  obtained. 

The  compactness  of  the  bunch  is  often  variable  with 
the  same  variety  in  different  localities  ;  in  one  the  berries 
may  be  very  much  crowded,  and  in  another  compara- 
tively loose.  In  the  former  case  the  berries  will  not  only 
be  much  smaller,  but  they  will  often  burst  open,  espe- 
cially if  they  have  a  very  thin  skin. 

Those  varieties  that  produce  very  compact  bunches 
are  always  benefited  (in  appearance,  at  least)  by  thinning 
the  berries,  and  those  who  are  growing  such  with  the 
expectation  of  making  show  bunches,  should  not  neglect 
this  operation.  Sometimes  it  may  be  beneficial  to  re- 
move whole  bunches,  but  when  the  vines  are  properly 
pruned  and  trained,  this  will  seldom  be  necessary. 

Bagging  the  Fruit.  —  Enclosing  the  growing 
bunches  of  grapes  in  thin  manilla  paper  bags,  as  a  pre- 
ventive of  mildew  and  black  rot,  as  well  as  attacks  of 
bees,  wasps  and  other  insects,  has  been  largely  practiced, 
of  late  years,  with  excellent  results.  Before  applying 
the  bag  two  or  three  small  holes  should  be  made  in  the 
bottom,  to  allow  any  water  getting  in  at  the  top  to  drain 
out.  The  bags  should  be  large  enough  to  allow  the  full 
development  of  the  fruit,  and  applied  early  in  the  sea- 
son, or  as  soon  as  the  berries  are  set  on  the  bunch.  The 
use  of  such  a  protection  will  seldom  be  required  to  pre- 
vent fungus  diseases,  in  vineyards  where  spraying  is 
practiced,  but  may  he  useful  in  saving  the  fruit  from 
the  attacks  of  bees  and  insects,  especially  where  perfect 
and  well  developed  table  grapes  are  desired. 

The  first  vineyardist  to  employ  paper  bags,  in  this 
country,  as  a  protective  appliance,  and  of  whom  I  have 


196  THE    GRAPE   CtJLTURIST. 

any  authentic  account,  was  Mr.  Alphonse  Loubat,  of 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  who,  early  in  the  present  century,  had 
a  vineyard  of  foreign  grapes  growing  on  land  now  cov- 
ered with  blocks  of  buildings  in  the  said  city.  Mr.  Lou- 
bat  published  a  small  work  in  French  and  English,  under 
the  title  of  the  "Vinedressers'  Guide,"  in  1827.  Some 
thirty  odd  years  later  an  old  resident  of  Brooklyn,  who 
had  been  a  frequent  visitor  to  Loubat's  vineyard,  in- 
formed me  that  paper  bags  were  extensively  employed  to 
prevent  mildew,  and  the  owner  of  the  vineyard  seemed 
to  be  very  proud  of  the  discovery,  that  by  such  simple 
means  very  perfect  fruit  could  be  secured. 

Gathering  the  Fruit. — Grapes  are  usually  gath- 
ered long  before  they  are  really  ripe.  Sometimes  this  is 
done  for  the  purpose  of  getting  them  into  market  early ; 
in  other  cases  it  may  be  because  they  appear  to  be  ripe, 
when,  in  fact,  the  ripening  process  has  only  commenced. 
Nearly  all  varieties  change  their  color  fifteen  to  twenty 
days  before  they  are  fully  matured  ;  and  as  the  grape  is 
one  of  those  fruits  that  must  ripen  before  being  gath- 
ered, or  not  at  all,  it  must  be  apparent  that  too  much 
care  is  not  likely  to  be  given  upon  this  point. 

It  is  natural  to  be  impatient  for  the  harvest,  partic- 
ularly when  we  have  waited  so  long,  and  watched  with 
so  much  care  and  anxiety  for  the  ripening  of  our  fruit ; 
still,  a  little  haste  may  be  more  fatal  than  considerable 
delay ;  for  grapes  that  are  over-ripe  keep  much  better 
than  those  that  are  not  fully  ripe.  The  stem  of  the 
bunch  will  usually  turn  brown  and  become  somewhat 
shriveled  when  the  fruit  is  fully  matured. 

Always  gather  the  grapes  in  fair  weather,  and  wait 
until  the  dew  has  dried  off  before  commencing  in  the 
morning.  Cut  off  the  clusters  with  a  knife  or  shears, 
and  handle  them  with  care,  so  that  the  bloom  shall  not 
be  rubbed  off  nor  any  of  the  berries  broken. 

If  any  portion  of  the  crop  is  not  ripe,  leave  it  on  the 
vines  and  gather  it  separately,  after  the  best  has  been 


MISCELLANEOUS.  197 

secured,  provided  it  is  worth  the  trouble.  If  there  be 
any  unripe  or  diseased  berries  in  the  bunch  they  should 
be  taken  out  at  the  time  of  gathering. 

Preserving  the  Fruit. — To  many  persons  the 
preservation  of  fruit  in  its  natural  condition  is  second 
only  in  importance  to  that  of  producing  it.  If  we  can, 
by  any  simple  means,  keep  our  grapes  fresh  two  or  three 
months,  it  not  only  prolongs  the  period  of  enjoyment  of 
a  luxury,  but,  if  it  be  desired  to  sell  the  fruit,  the  price 
will  be  found  to  increase  as  the  season  advances,  beyond 
the  usual  marketing  period,  the  earliest  and  latest  in 
market  always  commanding  the  highest  prices,  although 
not  always  the  most  ready  sale. 

There  is  no  reason  why  the  tables  of  those  who  de- 
sire grapes  should  not  be  supplied  with  them  for  four  or 
five  months  in  the  year.  Every  variety  of  grapes  will 
not  keep  well,  any  more  than  every  sort  of  apples  or 
pears ;  still,  a  majority  of  the  grapes  now  grown  will 
keep  several  months,  with  ordinary  care. 

The  process  of  preserving  is  very  simple,  and  requires 
more  common  sense  than  science.  The  requisites  are : 
1st,  The  fruit  should  be  thoroughly  ripe,  should  not  be 
bruised  or  broken,  but  carefully  handled  while  gathering 
and  packing.  The  fruit  may  be  put  away  on  shelves,  or 
packed  in  small  boxes ;  the  latter  method  is  probably 
the  best,  as  it  is  more  liable  to  become  shriveled  when 
left  in  an  open  room  than  when  confined  in  a  smaller 
space.  Boxes  that  will  hold  from  twenty  to  thirty 
pounds  are  of  convenient  size,  and  the  fruit  will  retain 
its  flavor  much  better  with  twenty  pounds  in  a  box  than 
when  there  are  only  five  pounds.  The  boxes  should  be 
made  so  that  they  can  be  shut  tight ;  if  there  should  be 
need  of  ventilation,  it  can  be  given  by  opening  the  box, 
but  constant  ventilation  of  them  is  only  another  name 
for  continual  evaporation,  which  would  cause  the  fruit 
to  shrivel,  and  thus  destroy  its  value. 


198  THE   GRAPE   CULTURIST. 

A  cool  and  steady  temperature  should  be  maintained, 
and  if  it  could  be  kept  between  35°  and  40°  there  would 
be  but  very  little  trouble  in  keeping  the  fruit,  even  if 
but  little  care  were  given  to  the  packing.  Very  few  per- 
sons have  a  room  or  cellar  that  can  be  kept  so  cool  as 
40°  ;  consequently  more  care  is  necessary  in  gathering, 
packing,  etc. 

A  warm,  damp  atmosphere  is  very  injurious,  as  it 
will  soon  cause  the  grapes  to  rot ;  but  the  presence  of 
considerable  moisture  will  do  no  harm,  provided  the 
temperature  is  low  ;  but,  unfortunately,  very  few  per- 
sons, except  fruit  growers  who  have  erected  cold  storage 
rooms  or  cellars  expressly  for  such  purposes,  have  any 
place  but  a  common  cellar  in  which  to  keep  their  grapes, 
and,  as  a  result,  they  soon  wither  and  are  worthless. 
Our  native  grapes,  as  a  whole,  are  not  good  keepers; 
their  porous  skin,  a  little  thin  juice,  and  much  tough 
pulp  around  the  seeds,  is  not  the  best  form  of  fruit  to  be 
preserved  for  any  considerable  time  after  gathering,  but 
with  what  is  called  cold  storage,  or  where  the  tempera- 
ture can  be  kept  down  to  near  the  freezing  point,  some 
of  the  tough  skin  varieties  may  be  preserved  in  fair  con- 
dition for  two  or  three  months,  but  rarely  longer.  The 
more  meaty  fleshed  foreign  varieties,  like  the  Malaga 
grape,  is  sent  to  this  country  in  immense  quantities ; 
although  very  inferior  in  quality,  it  is  of  large  size,  and 
has  a  hard,  plum-like  flesh,  which  will  resist  rough 
handling  and  remain  sound  and  firm  for  months  in  cool 
weather.  The  more  delicate  the  fruit,  the  less  valuable 
for  keeping  or  sending  long  distances  to  market ;  and 
this  is  not  only  true  with  grapes,  but  with  nearly  all  the 
larger  fruits  and  many  vegetables. 

Sawdust  is  often  used  in  packing  the  Malaga  grapes 
which  are  so  common  in  our  markets ;  but  the  flavor  of 
the  grapes  is  always  injured  more  or  less  by  it,  giving 
them  a  strong,  woody  taste.  Cork-dust  is  far  better  than 


MISCELLANEOUS.  199 

common  sawdust;  but  it  cannot  be  obtained,  except 
near  cork  manufactories,  and  perhaps  not  then  to  any 
amount.  If  any  such  material  is  to  be  used,  there  is 
none  better  or  more  easily  procured  than  chaif  of  rye, 
wheat  or  oats.  Eice  chaff  would  probably  be  still  better. 

When  the  grapes  are  gathered,  bring  them  into  a 
cool  room  and  spread  them  out  upon  a  table  or  shelves, 
and  let  them  remain  there  for  a  few  days,  until  all  sur- 
plus moisture  has  passed  off ;  then  pack  them  away  in 
the  boxes,  as  follows  :  Spread  a  thick  sheet  of  paper  on 
the  bottom,  then  lay  on  a  layer  of  bunches,  placing  them 
close  together ;  then  another  sheet  of  paper,  and  so  on 
until  the  box  is  full.  Boxes  deep  enough  to  hold  four 
or  five  layers  are  better  than  deeper  ones.  When  the 
boxes  are  filled,  put  them  away  in  a  cool  place,  and 
where  they  can  be  examined  occasionally,  and  the  de- 
cayed berries  be  taken  out  from  time  to  time  as  they 
appear.  If  the  place  is  cool  and  the  fruit  sound  and 
ripe,  they  will  keep  three  or  four  months  without  further 
care.  But  if  the  grapes  are  to  be  marketed  within  a  few 
days,  then  they  may  be  immediately  packed  into  the 
common  five  and  ten  pound  "free  fruit"  baskets,  and 
the  bunches  laid  in  as  close  and  as  snugly  as  possible. 
If  the  vineyardist  has  a  cold  storage  room  in  which  to 
place  the  baskets  as  they  are  packed,  they  may  be  kept  a 
week  or  two  before  shipping,  but  it  is  not  well  to  send 
off  baskets  packed  for  any  considerable  time  without 
careful  inspection,  because  those  who  sell  such  fruits  on 
commission  dislike  to  receive  complaints  from  their  cus- 
tomers about  bad  packing  and  poor  condition  of  the  arti- 
cles passing  through  their  hands.  It  is  rare  that  an 
inferior  article  of  any  kind  commands  remunerative 
prices  in  any  market,  and  vineyardists  have  to  be  con- 
stantly on  the  alert  to  prevent  loss  from  bad  packing 
and  rough  handling  of  their  grapes. 

Wine  Making. — For  my  own  part,  I  could  never 
understand  why  wine  making  had  anything  more  to  do 


200  THE   GBAPE   CULTURIST. 

with  grape  culture  than  whisky  or  starch  making  had  to 
do  with  corn  growing,  or  cider  making  and  the  produc- 
tion of  apple  jack  should  necessarily  be  recognized  as  a 
part  of  pomology.  Two  hundred  years  ago,  when  John 
Evelyn  wrote  his  "Pomona,"  it  would  not  have  been 
thought  complete  without  those  wonderful  chapters  on 
"The  Making  and  Ordering  of  Cyder  !"  The  man  who 
writes  a  book  on  apple  and  pear  culture,  at  the  present 
time,  would  hardly  think  it  in  his  line  to  tell  how  to 
make  perry  and  cider,  nor  would  it  be  expected  of  him. 
I  shall  therefore  depart  from  the  general  rule,  and  for 
two  reasons  :  1st.  I  believe  that  wine  and  brandy  mak- 
ing do  not  necessarily  belong  to  grape  culture.  2.  I 
should  not  be  able  to  give  any  information  from  actual 
experience ;  and  I  believe  the  reader  will  agree  with  me 
that  in  horticulture,  at  least,  none  have  a  right  to  be- 
come teachers  until  they  have,  themselves,  been  scholars. 

There  are  plenty  of  men  in  our  country  who  know 
how  to  make  wine,  and  from  them  we  should  get  correct 
information  upon  the  subject,  provided  they  can  be  per- 
suaded to  give  it,  and  none  others  should  be  heeded.  It 
is  not  every  one  who  attempts  to  make  wine,  that  accom- 
plishes it ;  for  every  vineyardist  does  not  know  how  to 
make  wine,  any  more  than  every  wine  maker  knows  how 
to  grow  grapes. 

My  main  object,  in  writing  this  book,  was  to  aid 
those  who  might  desire  to  raise  grapes  for  home  use  or 
market,  and  at  that  time, — now  thirty  years  since, — 
good  table  grapes  were  very  scarce  everywhere  in  this 
country,  and  very  few  persons  who  planted  vines  in  their 
gardens,  or  elsewhere,  had  any  clear  ideas  of  how  they 
should  be  pruned  or  trained;  and  very  much  of  this 
ignorance  still  remains,  even  with  the  immense  amount 
of  information  published  on  the  subject  during  the  past 
two  or  three  decades.  But  professional  vineyardists  have 
increased  in  numbers  immensely  during  these  years,  and 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


201 


their  labors  have,  upon  the  whole,  been  crowned  with 
success,  and  we  need  no  better  proof  of  it  than  the 
abundance  of  excellent  grapes  to  be  seen  every  autumn 
in  the  markets  of  all  cities  and  villages,  from  the  Atlan- 
tic to  the  Pacific  oceans.  Good  dessert  grapes  have,  of 
late  years,  become  so  cheap  and  plentiful,  that  even  the 
poor  of  our  great  cities  may  now  freely  indulge  in  fruits 


FIG.  77. 


FIG.  78. 


which  a  few  years  since  was  only  to  be  obtained  as  lux- 
uries, and  by  the  rich  and  weli-to-do  people. 

Whenever  and  wherever  there  is  a  surplus  of  good 
table  grapes,  the  wine,  vinegar  and  brandy  maker  may 
come  in  and  help  to  dispose  of  it ;  but  the  production  of 
such  liquids  and  liquors  is  not,  necessarily,  an  adjunct 
of  grape  culture. 

Implements  for  the  Vineyard. — The  imple- 
ments required  in  the  vineyard  are  in  no  way  different 


202  THE   GRAPE   CULTURIST. 

from  those  employed  by  gardeners  generally,  such  as 
plows,  hoes,  spades  and  spading  forks,  and  most  essen- 
tial of  all  is  a  good,  sharp  pruning,  or  pocket  knife  and 
pruning  shears. 

Those  who  have  a  large  number  of  vines  to  prune 
know  the  importance  of  having  a  good  implement  with 
which  to  do  it.  With  a  first-rate  pair  of  shears  a  man 
can  prune  many  more  vines  in  a  day  than  he  can  with  a 
knife ;  besides,  there  is  less  danger  of  breaking  off  those 
buds  which  it  is  desirable  to  retain.  In  pruning  fruit 
trees  the  pruning  knife  is  preferable,  because  we  usually 
wish  to  make  a  smooth  cut,  so  that  the  wound  will  heal 
over ;  not  so  with  the  vine,  as  the  cut  is  generally  made 
between  the  buds,  and  the  wound  is  not  expected  to 
heal ;  the  stump  above  the  bud  dies  back  to  it,  and  if 
this  is  cut  away  it  is  only  for  looks — nothing  more. 
Therefore,  in  pruning  vines  it  is  not  requisite  to  leave  a 
very  smooth  surface  to  the  wounds,  though  to  have  an 
instrument  that  will  cut  smooth  and  easy  is  very  desirable. 

There  are  any  number  of  styles  of  pruning  shears — 
German,  French,  English  and  American.  Some  are 
good,  but  more  that  are  good  for  nothing.  But  every 
vineyardist  will  usually  have  his  personal  preference  in 
such  matters,  but  the  two  forms  of  pruning  shears  shown 
in  Figs.  77  and  78  are  both  of  American  manufacture 
and  have  long  been  in  common  use. 


CHAPTER  XIX. 

INSECT   ENEMIES   OF   THE   GRAPE. 

In  its  natural  wild  state  the  grape  appears  to  be 
about  as  free  from  insect  enemies  as  any  other  fruit-bear- 
ing plant ;  but  it  has  a  few,  and  these  have  been  allowed 
to  increase  upon  vines  under  cultivation,  until  they  are 
becoming  quite  formidable,  and  in  some  parts  of  the 
country  their  ravages  have  been  so  great,  of  late  years, 
as  to  materially  lessen  the  product  of  many  vineyards. 

The  rapid  increase  of  noxious  insects  is,  without 
doubt,  owing,  in  a  great  measure,  to  the  destruction  of 
tliose  birds  that  li.ve  mostly  upon  them.  If  we  destroy 
or  drive  away  the  natural  enemies  of  the  insects,  then 
\vc  must  take  upon  ourselves  the  office  of  destroyer,  and 
work  with  perseverance  and  vigilance,  or  see  all  our 
efforts  to  produce  fruit  in  abundance  of  no  avail.  That 
noxious  insects  tire  rapidly  increasing  throughout  the 
country  must  be  apparent  to  every  one  who  has  given 
the  subject  attention.  Insects  that,  a  few  years  since, 
were  unknown  in  tho  Western  States,  are  now  found 
there  in  abundance,  having  been  introduced,  not  only 
from  the  Eastern  States,  but  imported  from  European 
countries  with  seeds,  fruits,  etc. 

It  matters  but  little  where  these  hosts  of  insects 
come  from,  the  fact  that  they  exist,  with  few  idlers 
among  them,  is  enough  to  set  every  one  of  us  to  work  to 
check  their  progress  in  every  way  possible.  To  proceed 
on  our  work  of  destruction  understand! ngly,  we  should 
first  know  our  enemies ;  for  some  insects  that  are  found 
on  the  grape  vine  do  not  injure  it,  like  the  common  Lady 

203 


204  THE   GRAPE   CULTURIST. 

Beetle,  but  assist  us  in  destroying  those  that  are  injuri- 
ous ;  therefore,  an  indiscriminate  slaughter,  in  many 
cases,  would  be  very  injudicious.  There  are  many  nos- 
trums offered,  at  the  present  time,  which  are  said  to  be 
insect  remedies,  and,  doubtless,  a  few  of  them  are  really 
what  they  purport  to  be,  as  some  are  easily  destroyed  by 
very  simple  means,  but  there  is  no  universal  remedy,  the 
application  of  which  is  at  all  practicable.  A  material 
that  would  act  as  a  poison  upon  one  might  serve  as  a 
food  for  another,  while  it  would  be  very  difficult  to  find 
anything  so  powerful  that  it  would  kill  all  kinds  of 
insects,  and,  at  the  same  time,  not  injure  the  plants 
upon  which  they  were  found. 

It  should  also  be  borne  in  mind  that  all  the  different 
orders  and  families  of  insects  are  not  constructed  exactly 
on  the  same  plan,  and  do  not  obtain  their  food  nor 
attack  plants  in  the  same  way.  For  instance,  the  beetles 
(Coleopterd)  have  mandibles,  or  jaws,  with  which  they 
bite,  crush,  or,  as  it  may  be  said,  chew  their  food ;  and 
when  these  pests  attack  plants  they  cut  holes  in,  or  con- 
sume the  leaves  and  stems,  and  their  grubs  (larvae)  do 
the  same ;  consequently,  by  dusting  or  spraying  the 
plants  with  poisons,  such  as  Paris  Green,  London  Pur- 
ple, or  even  less  virulent  insecticides,  a  few  particles 
taken  in  with  their  food  causes  death.  With  the  Lepid- 
optera,  butterflies  and  moths,  no  solid  food  is  consumed 
by  the  perfect  winged  insect,  although  they  may  sip  a 
small  amount  of  liquids  occasionally ;  but  when  in  the 
caterpillar  stage  they  are  usually  very  voracious,  having 
strong  mandibles,  like  the  larger  beetles,  or  Coleoptera, 
and  may  be  destroyed  with  similar  preparations  or  poi- 
sons ;  but  many  of  the  species  are  so  large  that  they  are 
readily  gathered  by  hand. 

The  Hemiptera,  or  true  bugs,  are  not  furnished 
with  strong  mandibles,  or  jaws,  but  in  place  of  these 
they  have  a  proboscis-like  organ,  with  which  they  punc- 


INSECT   ENEMIES   OF   THE    GRAPE.  205 

ture  the  succulent  parts  of  the  plant  and  suck  its  juices, 
causing  it  to  wither  and  die.  We  cannot  poison  these 
insects  by  scattering  or  spraying  mineral  or  other  poison- 
ous substances  over  the  foliage  and  stems  of  the  plants, 
simply  because  the  bugs  do  not  eat  either  leaves  or 
stems ;  but  we  can  kill  them  by  applying  thin  liquids, 
gases,  or  the  fumes  of  various  substances  direct  to  their 
bodies,  thereby  causing  suffocation.  Among  the  most 
pernicious  pests  of  this  order  which  attack  the  vine  are 
the  aphides,  or  plant  lice,  widely  known  as  aphis,  which 
attack  and  suck  the  juices  of  the  young  leaves  and  shoots 
in  spring  and  summer.  In  the  same  order  we  have  the 
thrips,  the  mealy-bug,  cottony-scale,  and  various  other 
kinds  of  sap-sucking  bugs. 

Among  the  Hymenoptera,  such  as  bees,  wasps,  saw- 
flies  and  ants,  there  are  comparatively  few  that  are  inju- 
rious to  the  vines,  although  the  wasps  and  honey  bees 
often  destroy  an  immense  quantity  of  fruit,  and  the 
sweeter  and  better  the  grape  the  more  likely  they  are  to 
be  attacked  by  bees  and  wasps. 

I  am  well  aware  of  the  fact  that  to  accuse  the  honey 
bee  of  destroying  grapes  is  treading  upon  dangerous 
ground,  for  apiarians  insist  that  the  bees  are  never  the 
first  transgressors,  but  only  follow  the  wasps,  who  cut  the 
skin  of  the  berries  and  let  in  the  "busy  bee"  to  enjoy 
the  feast ;  but  I  fail  to  see  why  the  bees  should  be  held 
innocent  of  robbing,  simply  because  some  other  insect 
has  opened  the  door  to  a  valuable  repository.  Neither 
will  this  exonerate  the  owners  of  bees ;  for  in  neighbor- 
hoods where  a  number  or  many  hives  are  kept,  they  do 
sometimes  destroy  more  fruit  in  a  week  than  the  wasps 
do  in  the  entire  season.  The  claim  made,  by  bee-keepers, 
that  the  honey  bee  cannot  puncture  or  make  a  hole  in 
the  skin  of  grapes  and  other  fruits  with  their  mouth 
parts,  which  are  so  well  developed  for  gathering  the 
sweets  of  plants,  and  which  are  strong  enough  to  uncap 


206  THE   GRAPE   CULTURIST. 

honey  cells  sealed  with  dry,  hard  wax,  is  scarcely  tena- 
ble ;  and  even  if  their  mandibles  were  not  strong  enough 
to  puncture  a  thin-skinned  grape,  their  front  feet,  or 
tarsi  are,  and  these  insects  are  certainly  wise  enough  to 
use  the  implements  with  which  nature  has  provided 
them  for  securing  food.  The  truth  of  the  matter,  it 
seems  to  me,  is  that  the  domesticated  honey  bee  is  an 
insect  of  peculiar  moods  and  tastes,  and  while  we  may 
not  be  able  to  account  for  certain  erratic  and  seemingly 
inconsistent  acts,  still  it  is  well  known  that  they  will 
attack  fruits  with  an  almost  insatiable  voracity,  and  per- 
haps the  very  next  season  could  not  be  induced  to  touch 
it.  Having  been  a  beekeeper  for  a  number  of  years, 
with  neighbors  who  keep  a  large  number  of  hives,  I  have 
not  been  without  abundant  opportunities  for  observing 
the  habits  of  these  valuable  and,  in  the  main,  very  useful 
insects,  but  there  is  no  denying  the  fact  that  they  will 
sometimes  get  into  moods  which  are  far  from  being 
agreeable  or  harmless  to  their  owners  and  others. 

In  the  following  list  of  noxious  insects  infesting 
vineyards  I  shall  only  attempt  to  name  a  few  of  the  most 
common  and  best  known.  But  every  vineyardist  should 
make  himself  acquainted  with  the  various  insects  infest- 
ing the  vine,  and  thereby  be  enabled  to  more  successfully 
check  their  ravages. 

There  are  now  many  excellent  works  published  on 
economic  entomology,  and  all  within  the  reach  of  those 
who  may  desire  information  on  this  subject.  In  addi- 
tion to,  at  least,  a  half  dozen  standard  practical  works 
on  entomology  which  have  been  published  within  the 
past  few  years,  there  are  several  excellent  periodicals 
devoted  to  the  same,  besides  the  annual  reports  of  a 
number  of  State  Entomologists,  and  those  of  the  Divis- 
ion of  Entomology  of  the  U.  S  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture. There  have  also  been  published  and  distributed 
many  special  entomological  bulletins  and  monographs, 


INSECT  ENEMIES   OF  THE  GRAPE.  207 

by  the  various  State  Experiment  Stations.  All  of  these 
sources  of  information  on  entomological  subjects  have, 
with  one  or  two  exceptions,  been  introduced  and  estab- 
lished since  the  first  edition  of  this  work  appeared, 
hence  the  less  need  of  an  elaborate  dissertation  on  the 
insect  pests  of  the  grape. 

Rose  Chafer,  or  Rose  Beetle  (Macrodactylus 
subspinosus). — This  beetle  measures  seven-twentieths  of 
an  inch  in  length.  Its  body  is  slender,  tapers  before 
and  behind,  and  is  entirely  covered  with  very  short  and 
close  ashon-yellow  down ;  the  thorax  is  long  and  narrow, 
angularly  widened  in  the  middle  of  each  side ;  the  legs 
are  slender,  and  of  a  pale  red  color ;  the  joints  of  the 
feet  are  tipped  with  black,  and  very  long.  This  is  one 
of  the  most  common  and  destructive  insects  known  to 
infest  the  grape  in  this  country.  In  some  seasons  it 
makes  its  appearance  in  such  vast  numbers  that  it  is 
impossible  to  stay  its  ravages.  It  does  not  seem  to  be 
at  all  fastidious  in  regard  to  its  food,  as  it  feeds  indis- 
criminately upon  nearly  all  kinds  of  plants.  It  prefers, 
however,  the  flowers  of  plants  to  their  leaves,  and  it 
usually  makes  its  appearance  in  the  spring,  about  the 
time  the  grape  comes  into  bloom.  It  eats  the  flower 
with  avidity,  and  when  it  appears  in  large  numbers  they 
make  short  work  of  the  entire  crop. 

There  are  a  number  of  remedies  recommended  for 
the  Rose  Chafer,  but  I  know  of  none  better  or  more 
effectual  than  that  of  catching  them  by  hand  and  killing 
them.  They  can  be  caught  very  rapidly  by  taking  a 
large  cup,  or  basin,  with  a  little  water  in  it,  and  a  tea- 
spoonful  of  kerosene,  and  holding  it  under  the  insect ; 
giving  the  cluster  of  flowers  a  slight  jar,  the  beetles  will 
immediately  let  go  their  hold  and  fall  into  the  dish. 
When  a  quantity  have  been  caught,  throw  them  into  the 
fire  or  pour  hot  water  upon  them.  I  have  followed  this 
simple  plan  for  several  years,  and  though  I  have  not 


208  THE   GRAPE   CULTUBIST. 

been  able  to  annihilate  them,  their  numbers  have  not 
increased. 

If  a  whole  neighborhood  would  band  together,  each 
destroying  all  to  be  found  upon  his  own  place,  there 
would  be  a  prospect  of  soon  exterminating  this  most 
destructive  enemy  of  the  grape.  There  is  no  other  way 
of  destroying  them  than  to  attack  the  insect  itself, 
because  the  female  deposits  its  eggs  in  the  ground,  where 
they  cannot  be  reached  by  any  ordinary  means. 

To  collect  the  beetles  from  the  flowers  of  the  grape 
is  often  rather  difficult,  and  the  better  way  is  to  employ 
decoy  plants,  and  entice  them  away  from  the  vines.  For 
this  purpose  I  have  made  use  of  several  species  of  the 
Spircea,  but  the  best  two  for  this  purpose  are  the  sorbus- 
leaved  (S.  sorbifolia)  and  the  Goat's  Beard  (S.  Aruncus). 
Both  of  these  species  bloom  in  spring  with  the  grapes, 
and  continue  in  flower  for  several  weeks.  The  first  is  a 
vigorous-growing,  hardy  shrub  from  Siberia,  producing 
numerous  long  upright  spikes  of  white  flowers,  which 
are  special  favorites  of  the  rose  beetle,  and  if  around 
they  are  sure  to  be  found  on  this  plant,  feeding  upon  its 
flowers,  from  which  they  can  be  readily  shaken  into  any 
vessel  used  in  collecting  such  pests. 

The  Groat's  Beard  spiraea  is  a  hardy,  indigenous  her- 
baceous plant,  forming  large  clumps,  which  may  be 
divided  for  the  purpose  of  propagation.  The  flower 
stems  grow  three  to  five  feet  high,  and  the  flowers  are  of 
a  tawny  white  color  and  produced  in  many  slender 
spikes,  disposed  in  a  long  compound  panicle.  When  the 
rose  beetles  gather  on  these  flowers  we  have  only  to  bend 
over  the  spikes  and  shake  the  pests  into  the  collecting 
pan.  These  plants  are  abundant  and  cheap,  and  I  have 
used  them  as  decoys  for  the  rose  beetles  for  many  years 
with  excellent  results. 

Blue  Flea  Beetle  (Graptodera  chalybea).  This 
is  a  very  small  jumping  beetle,  usually  of  a  steel  blue  or 


IKSECT   ENEMIES   OF  THE   GRAPE.  209 

greenish  blue  color  above  ;  the  underside  is  a  dark  green, 
and  the  antennae  and  feet  are  dull  black.  It  is  only  about 
three-twentieths  of  an  inch  in  length,  but  when  abund- 
ant it  soon  cuts  the  leaves  full  of  holes  and  does  consid- 
erable damage. 

Usually  two  broods  appear  in  a  season  ;  the  first  in 
April  or  May,  according  to  latitude,  and  the  second  in 
July  and  August.  Dusting  the  vines 
with  soot,  or  strong  hard  wood  ashes 
will  usually  drive  them  away,  if  it  does 
not  kill  them.  Arsenical  poisons  may 
also  be  applied,  if  more  simple  insecti- 
cides do  not  answer. 

Spotted     Pelidnota     (Pelidnota 
punctata).     This  beetle  is  occasionally  FIG.  79. 

found  upon  the  grape  vine  in  the  months  of  July  and 
August.  "It  is  of  an  oblong,  oval  shape,  and  about  an 
inch  long.  The  wing-covers  are  tile-colored,  or  dull, 
brownish  yellow,  with  three  distinct 
black  dots  on  each,  Fig.  79 ;  the 
thorax  is  darker  and  slightly  bronzed, 
with  a  black  dot  on  each  side;  the 
body  beneath  and  the  legs  are  of  a 
deep,  bronzed,  green  color.  The  Pel- 
idnota is  of  such  a  large  size  that, 
should  its  numbers  ever  become  great, 
it  would  be  very  destructive.  I  have 
never  found  more  than  half  a  dozen 
upon  any  one  vine,  and  these  were  easily  picked  off  and 
killed. 

Goldsmith  Beetle  (Cotalpa  lanigera). — This 
beetle  is  found  mostly  upon  trees,  such  as  the  pear,  oak, 
hickory,  but  most  abundant  on  the  poplars  ;  but  having, 
in  several  instances,  found  it  feeding  upon  the  leaves  of 
the  grapevine,  I  have  inserted  an  illustration  (Fig.  80) 
and  a  description,  so  that  the  attention  of  the  vineyard- 
14 


210  THE   GRAPE   CULTURIST. 

ist  might  be  called  to  it  in  case  its  numbers  should 
become  so  great  as  to  render  its  destruction  necessary. 
It  is  about  nine-tenths  of  an  inch  in  length,  broad,  oval 
in  shape,  of  a  lemon  color  above,  glittering  like  bur- 
nished gold  on  the  top  of  the  head  and  thorax ;  the 
under  side  of  the  body  is  copper  colored,  and  thickly 
covered  with  whitish  wool ;  and  the  legs  are  brownish 
yellow,  or  brassy,  shaded  with  green.  They  appear  in 
this  vicinity  in  June.  There  are  also  four  other  native 
species  of  the  Cotalpas,  but  all  inhabit  the  far  Western 
States  except  the  one  described. 

Grapevine  Fidia  (Fidiaviticidd). — This  is  a  small 
chestnut-brown  beetle  covered  with  a  grayish  pubescence. 
It  is  about  three-eighths  of  an  inch  in  length,  with  a 
narrow  thorax  and  small  head ;  but  when  abundant  it 
will  soon  cut  vine  leaves  into  shreds,  and  seriously  check 
the  growth  of  the  plants.  This  insect  has  the  habit  of 
dropping  to  the  ground  when  disturbed ;  consequently 
not  easily  caught,  except  by  chickens,  who  seem  to  be 
very  fond  of  them,  and  for  this  reason  fowls  should  be 
allowed  to  have  the  run  of  vineyards  where  these  pests 
occur.  These  beetles  may,  however,  be  poisoned  by 
dusting  the  leaves  with  arsenical  insecticides,  or  with 
Persian  insect  powder. 

The  Grape  Curculio,  or  Weevil  (Craponius 
incBqualis). — This  is  an  indigenous  pest  which  has  prob- 
ably bred  in  the  wild  grapes  for  many  ages  past,  and 
now  occasionally  attacks  the  cultivated  varieties.  My 
first  acquaintance  with  it  began  in  1869,  when  a  corres- 
pondent residing  in  Canada  sent  me  a  number  of  infested 
berries,  but  later  I  learned  that  it  was  quite  abundant  in 
Ohio,  Illinois,  and  several  other  Western  States.  It  is  a 
minute  little  pest,  scarcely  more  than  one-eighth  of  an 
inch  long  ;  of  a  black  color  with  a  grayish  tint,  and  it  is 
about  as  broad  as  long.  The  females  deposit  their  eggs 
on  the  young  berries  during  June  and  July,  in  our 


INSECT   ENEMIES   OF  THE   GRAPE.  211 

Northern  States,  and  the  young  grubs  feed  upon  the 
pulp,  causing  the  grapes  to  turn  brown,  as  though  struck 
with  disease.  The  grubs  are  of  a  whitish  color,  and 
about  one-fourth  of  an  inch  long  when  fully  grown. 
These  grubs  leave  the  fruit  the  last  of  July  and  bury 
themselves  in  the  ground,  here  changing  to  pupae  within 
a  small,  smooth,  earthy  cell,  and  in  September  the 
beetles  issue  and  probably  hibernate  in  this  stage  during 
the  following  winter  months.  I  am  unable  to  suggest 
any  better  way  to  destroy  these  pests  than  to  gather  and 
burn  the  infested  fruit. 

Grape-cane  Curculio  (Ampeloglypter  Sesostris). 
— This  is  even  smaller  than  the  grape  weevil,  with  a 
longer  snout  and  a  much  nar- 
rower body ;  the  prothorax  of 
a  brown  color,  and  elytra  (wing 
covers)  black  and  slightly 
punctured.  This  little  pest 
does  not  attack  the  berries, 
but  it  does  the  young,  tender 
shoots  and  canes,  causing  galls 
upon  them,  the  larvae,  or  grubs, 
living  within  these  swellings. 
The  remedy  is  to  cut  off  the 
gall-bearing  canes  and  burn 
them  as  soon  as  discovered. 
There  are  a  large  number  of 
insects  which  infest  both  the 
wild  and  cultivated  grape,  FIG-  81- 

producing  galls  on  either  the  leaves  or  growing  canes, 
but  the  remedy  is  the  same  for  all,  i.  e.,  gather  and  burn 
the  galls  before  mature  or  the  insects  have  escaped. 

Grape-root  Borer  (Prionus  laticollis). — There 
are,  at  least,  a  half  dozen  species  of  the  Prionidce,  the 
larvae  of  which  are  occasionally  found  bwing  in  the  roots 
and  sterns  of  large  and  old  grapevines.  In  the  Eastern 


THE  GBAPE  CULTURIST. 

and  Middle  States  the  Broad-necked  Prionus  (P.  laticol' 
Us)  is  the  most  abundant,  while  in  the  Western  the 
Tile-horned  Prionus  (P.  imbricornis)  is  the  most  fre- 
quently reported  as  attacking  vines.  In  California,  and 
eastward  to  New  Mexico,  the  Prionus  Californicus  is 
most  plentiful.  These  beetles  are  all  large,  and  a  female 
of  average  size  of  the  Broad-necked  Prionus  is  shown  in 
Fig.  81.  Their  larvae  are  also  large,  varying  from  two 
to  three  inches  in  length,  and  some  times  fully  a  half 
inch  in  diameter.  They  are  really 
giants  among  the  borers,  but  fortu- 
nately they  prefer  forest  trees  and 
shrubs  to  grapevines,  and  only  oc- 
casionally breed  in  the  latter. 
The  only  remedy  is  to  destroy  the 
beetles ;  for  the  vine  usually  dies 
before  the  presence  of  the  borer  is 
discovered. 

Caterpillars.  —  Caterpillars 
are  the  larvae  of  butterflies  or 
moths.  These  insects  have  four 
stages  of  existence :  The  egg, 
caterpillar,  pupa,  or  chrysalis, 
and  the  perfect  insect.  Of  these 
it  is  the  caterpillar  alone  which  is 
troublesome ;  they  feed  upon  the 
FIG- 82-  leaves  of  plants  and  are  often  very 

destructive,  especially  in  city  gardens.  In  certain  groups 
the  caterpillar  becomes,  in  its  winged  state,  a  butterfly, 
and  in  others  a  moth.  The  former  fly  by  day,  and  the 
latter  mostly  by  night,  or  toward  evening  only.  They 
are  also  distinguished  by  peculiarities  of  structure  not 
necessary  to  mention  here.  The  numerous  species  are 
recognized  by  the  entomologist  by  their  form,  color, 
structure  of  legs  and  antennae,  and  numerous  other  char- 
acteristics which  enable  him  to  classify  them  into  genera 
and  families. 


INSECT   ENEMIES   OF   THE   GRAPE.  213 

The  Grapevine  Plume  (Pterophorus  perisceli- 
dactylus,  Fitch). — Although  this  is  one  of  the  smallest 
of  the  moths  infesting  the  grape,  it  is,  at  the  same  time, 
one  of  the  most  troublesome  and  destructive.  Just 
about  the  time  the  bearing  canes  of  the  vine  begin  to 
show  embryo  flower  clusters,  the  leaves  around  these  are 
found  drawn  together  and  fastened  with  fine  silken 
threads,  and  upon  opening  these  folded  leaves  will  be 
found  one  or  two  small,  greenish-white  hairy  caterpil- 
lars, as  art  a,  Fig.  82,  and  d,  the  little  moth.  These  cat- 
erpillars, if  undisturbed,  soon  destroy  the  embryo  clus- 
ters of  flowers  and  prevent  the  production  of  fruit. 
These  pests  are  so 
securely  enclosed 
within  the  folded 
leaves  that  they  can- 
not be  reached  with 
ordinary  insecti- 
cides, and  the  only 
way  of  destroying 
them  is  to  examine 
the  vines  daily  and 
pick  out  the  cater-  FIG-  83- 

pillars  by  hand.  This  grapevine  plume  remains  for  only 
a  very  short  time  in  spring,  the  caterpillars  soon  leaving 
the  vines ;  but  while  they  are  on  it  they  can  do  a  great 
amount  of  damage,  but  no  more  than  the  following  : 

The  Grape-leaf  Folder  (Desmia  maculalis). — In 
Fig.  83  a  male  and  female  moth,  with  one  of  the  cater- 
pillars half  enclosed  in  a  folded  leaf,  is  shown,  all  three 
copied  from  the  "American  Entomologist,"  Vol.  II,  1869. 
Dr.  Kiley,  in  describing  this  insect,  says  that  the  moth 
is  a  very  pretty  thing,  expanding,  on  an  average,  almost 
an  inch,  with  length  of  body  about  one  third  of  an  inch. 
The  color  is  black,  with  an  opalescent  reflection,  and  the 
under  surface  differs  only  from  the  upper  in  being  less 


214  THE    GRAPE   CULTUEIST. 

bright;  all  the  wings  are  bordered  with  white.  The 
front  wings  of  both  sexes  are  each  furnished  with  two 
white  spots,  but  while  in  the  male  there  is  but  one  large 
spot  on  the  hind  wings,  in  the  female  this  spot  is  invari- 
ably more  or  less  constricted  in  the  middle,  especially 
above,  and  is  often  entirely  divided  into  two  distinct 
spots,  as  shown  in  the  right-hand,  or  female  moth  in 
Fig.  83.  These  moths,  when  disturbed,  are  very  active, 
and  soon  wriggle  out  of  the  leaf  and  drop  to  the  ground. 
Crushing  with  finger  and  thumb  is  the  only  way  I  have 
ever  found  to  destroy  them,  and  although  I  have  fought 
these  pests  for  years,  they  are  still  very  plentiful  in  my 
grounds. 

The  Yellow  Bear  (Spilosoma  Virginica). — This 
is  also  known  as  the  salt  marsh  caterpillar,  because  it 
breeds  in  the  salt  marshes ;  and  towards  autumn,  when 
nearly  full  grown,  it  migrates  to  the  uplands,  invading 


FIG.  84. 


gardens  and  vineyards,  overrunning  and  stripping  the 
vines  of  their  leaves.  It  is  only  near  the  seacoast  that 
these  caterpillars  are  very  numerous  and  destructive. 
The  moth  is  white,  with  a  small  discal  dot  on  the  fore 
wings,  and  two  black  dots  on  the  hind  wings,  one  on  the 
middle  and  another  near  the  inner  angle.  The  caterpil- 
lar, when  full  grown,  is  about  two  inches  long,  and  cov- 
ered with  long  yellowish  hair,  Fig.  84,  hence  one  of  its 
common  names.  Hand  picking  is  the  best  and  surest 
way  of  getting  rid  of  this  pest,  and  as  they  are  so  large 
they  are  not  at  all  difficult  to  collect  while  feeding. 

Sphingidse,    or     Sphinx    Moths. — Among    the 
sphinges  we  have  some  of  the  most  voracious  of  all  the 


INSECT   ENEMIES   OF   THE   GRAPE. 


215 


caterpillars.  They  are  literally  gluttons,  as  they  never 
seem  to  stop  eating  from  the  time  they  are  hatched  until 
they  pass  into  the  chrysalis  state.  They  are  very  de- 


FIG.  85. 


structive  in  a  nursery  of  young  vines,  as  a  single  cater- 
pillar,  when  nearly  grown,  will,  in  twenty-four  hours, 
eat  every  leaf  on  a  one-stem  vine  of  three  or  four  feet 


216 


TIIE    GRAPE   CULTUKIST. 


high.  The  name  pliilampelus  (lover  of  the  vine)  is  very 
appropriate,  and  was  given  to  one  group  of  these  moths 
by  the  late  Dr.  Harris.  There  is  a  large  number  of 
native  species,  all  with  similar  habits.  They  may  be 
poisoned  by  dusting  the  leaves  with  insecticides,  but  the 
better  way  is  to  pick  them  from  the  plants  and  crush 
them  with  the  foot,  or  otherwise.  The  following  are 
some  of  the  most  common  and  destructive  of  these 
SpMngidcB. 

The    Satellite    Sphinx    (Philampelus   Satellitia, 
Linn). — The  moth  is  of  the  size  shown  in  Fig.  85,  and 


FIG.  86. 

is  of  a  light  olive  gray,  variegated  with  dark  olive  green. 
The  smooth,  naked  caterpillars,  when  first  hatched,  are 
of  a  green  color,  with  a  tinge  of  pink  along  the  sides, 
with  a  long,  straight  pink  horn  at  the  tail.  This  horn 
soon  begins  to  shorten,  and  by  the  third  moult  it  entirely 
disappears,  leaving  only  a  small,  eye-like  spot  on  the  last 
segment  of  the  body .  The  color  of  these  caterpillars  is 
somewhat  variable,  but  usually  greenish  or  velvety 
brown,  with  lighter  markings  along  the  sides,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  86.  When  these  caterpillars  have  attained  their 
full  size  and  are  about  to  transform,  they  descend  to  the 

ground  and  into  it  a  few 
inches,  where  they  shed 
their  skin  and  change  to 
a  chrysalis  of  a  deep 
FIG.  ST.  chestnut  brown  color,  and 

of  the  form  shown  in  Fig.  87.  These  chrysalides  are 
often  plowed  up  while  working  in  the  vineyard  late  in 
fall  or  early  spring. 


INSECT   ENEMIES   OF   THE   GRAPE. 


217 


218 


THE   GKAPE   CULTURIST. 


There  are  several  other  species  of  these  sphinges 
which  are  occasionally  found  on  the  vines ;  among  the 
most  common  I  may  name  the  Hog  caterpillar  (Chcero- 
compa  pampinatrix),  and  the  Achemon  Sphinx  (Philam- 
pelus  achemon),  and  the  Abbot  Sphinx  ( Thyreus  Abbotii) ; 
the  latter,  however,  attacks  the  Virginia  Creeper  (Am- 
pelopsis  quinquefolia) ,  in  preference  to  the  cultivated 
grape.  All  the  caterpillars  of  the  sphinx-moths  are  so 
large  that  they  are  readily  seen  by 
the  time  they  begin  to  do  much 
damage  to  the  leaves,  and  should 
then  be  picked  off  and  killed. 

The  Cecropia  Moth  (Pla- 
tysamia  Cecropia).  —  This  is  our 
largest  native  moth,  the  larvae  of 
which  feeds  on  the  grapevine ;  but, 
fortunately,  it  prefers  the  currant, 
gooseberry  and  other  shrubs,  to  the 
grape,  but  attacks  the  latter  when 
more  agreeable  food  is  not  abundant. 
These  moths  have  a  spread  of  wing 
from  five  to  six  inches,  Fig.  88,  and 
their  general  color  is  of  a  dusky 
brown,  with  hinder  margins  clay- 
colored  ;  near  the  middle  of  each  of 
the  wings  there  is  an  opaque,  kidney- 
shaped  dull  red  spot,  having  a  white 
center  and  a  narrow  black  edging ; 
and  beyond  the  spot  a  wavy,  dull 
red  band,  bordered  internally  with 
white ;  the  fore  wings,  next  to  the  shoulders,  are  dull 
red,  with  a  curved  white  band ;  and  near  the  tips  of  the 
same  is  an  eye-like  black  spot,  within  a  bluish-white 
crescent.  The  caterpillar,  when  young,  is  of  a  deep  yel- 
low color,  with  rows  of  minute  black  warts  on  its  back. 
When  it  comes  to  full  size,  late  in  summer,  it  measures 


FIG.  89. 


INSECT   ENEMIES   OF   THE    GKAPE.  219 

three  inches  or  more  in  length,  and  is  then  of  a  light 
green  color.  The  two  warts  on  the  second  and  third 
rings  are  of  a  coral  red  color,  the  others  yellow,  beset 
with  black  bristles.  When  the  caterpillars  leave  the 
plants  uponwhich  they  have  been  feeding  they  do  not 
descend  to  the  ground,  like  those  of  the  sphinx  inoths, 
but  retire  to  some  secluded  cane  of  the  vine,  or  nearby 
shrub,  and  there  spin  a  cocoon,  fastened  longitudinally 
to  it,  as  shown  in  Fig.  89.  When  the  leaves  have  fallen 
from  the  plants  in  autumn  these  large  cocoons  become 
quite  conspicuous  and  may  be  readily  gathered  and 
burned,  or  otherwise  destroyed. 

BLUE  CATEKPILLAES  OF  THE  VINE. 

There  are  three  or  four  different  species  of  caterpil- 
lars infesting  grapevines  known  under  this  general 
name,  which  have  a  close 
resemblance  to  each 
other,  and  are  rather  dif- 
ficult to  distinguish,  ex- 
cept by  entomologists, 
who  have  studied  them 
very  carefully.  The  par- 
ent moths,  however,  are  FIG.  oo. 
very  different ;  but  these,  unfortunately,  are  seldom  seen 
by  the  practical  vineyardist,  whose  interest  in  such  mat- 
ters is  not  usually  awakened  until  he  finds  the  caterpil- 
lars stripping  the  leaves  from  his  vines.  The  largest  of 
the  blue  caterpillars  is  the  larvae  of 

The  Beautiful  Wood  Nymph  (Eudryas  grata 
Fabr). — This  species  is  more  or  less  common  in  all  parts 
of  the  country,  and,  although  called  "wood  nymph,"  it 
often  attacks  vines  growing  in  city  gardens.  The  moth 
is  of  the  size  shown  in  Fig.  90  ;  the  color  of  the  markings 
on  the  fore  wings  are  rusty  brown  and  olive  green  ;  the 
hind  wings  nankeen  yellow,  broadly  marked  with  pale 


220  THE    GRAPE    CULTURIST. 

brown  on  the  hind  border.  The  caterpillars  are  about 
an  inch  and  a  half  long  when  fully  grown,  and  of  a 
bluish  color,  transversely  banded  with  deep  orange  across 
the  middle  of  each  ring,  the  band  being  dotted  with 
black,  with  head  and  feet  orange ;  the  top  of  the  eleventh 
ring  somewhat  bulging,  and  the  fore  part  of  the  body 
hunched  up  when  the  caterpillar  is  at  rest.  The  cater- 
pillars begin  to  appear  about  the 
middle  of  July,  and  others  are 
hatched  afterwards,  and  as  late  as 
FIG.  91.  tne  middle  of  August.  They  eat 

all  parts  of  the  leaves,  even  to  the  midrib  and  stalks. 
When  not  eating  they  generally  rest  upon  the  underside 
of  the  leaves,  stretched  out  as  shown  in  Fig.  91. 

A  closely  allied  species  to  the  last  is  known  as  the 
Pearl  Wood  Nymph  (Eudryas  unio,  Hubner).  The  cat- 
erpillars of  the  two  species  are  almost  identical,  while 
the  moths  are  quite  distinct ;  for  in  the  latter  the  brown 
markings  on  the  wings  are  neither  as  large  nor  as  dark 
in  color,  while  the  inner  edge  of  the  border  of  the  front 
wings  is  wavy,  instead  of  a  smooth  curved  line.  Both 
species  of  moths  rest  during  the  day  on  the  under  side 
of  the  leaves  of  the  plants  upon  which 
they  feed,  and  are  only  active  during 
the  early  evening  and  night.  Another 
species  of  these  blue  caterpillars  be- 
longing to  the  same  family,  but  to  a  FIG.  92. 
different  genus,  is  the  larvse  of  The  Eight  Spotted  For- 
ester (Alypia  octomaculata,  Fabr).  The  moths  are  about 
the  same  size  of  the  E.  grata,  but  the  wings  are  black, 
with  eight  spots,  two  on  each  wing ;  those  on  the  fore 
wings  being  yellowish,  those  on  the  hind  wings  white. 

The  American  Procris  (Procris  Americana, 
Boisd). — This  is  a  small  moth  of  a  blue-black  color,  with 
a  saffron -colored  collar  and  a  notched  tuft  on  the  extrem- 
ity of  the  body.  The  wings,  which  are  very  narrow, 


INSECT  ENEMIES  OF  THE   GRAPE.  221 

expand  nearly  one  inch,  Fig.  92.  The  caterpillars  are 
gregarious ;  that  is,  considerable  numbers  of  them  live 
and  feed  together,  collected  side  by  side  on  the  same 
leaf,  and  only  dispersed  when  they  are  about  to  make 
their  cocoons.  They  are  of  a  yellow  color,  with  a  trans- 
verse row  of  black,  velvety  tufts  on  each  ring,  and  a 
few  conspicuous  hairs  on  each  extremity  of  the  body. 
They  are  hatched  from  eggs  which  are  laid  in  clusters 
of  twenty  or  more  together,  on  the  lower  sides  of  the 
leaves  of  the  grapevine  and  Virginia  creeper ;  and  they 
come  to  their  growth  from  the  middle  to  the  end  of 
August.  They  then  measure  six-tenths,  or  rather  more 
than  one-half  of  an  inch  in  length.  Their  feet  are  six- 
teen in  number  and  rather  short,  and  their  motions  are 
sluggish.  When  touched  they  curl  their  bodies  sidewise 
and  fall  to  the  ground ;  or,  more  rarely,  hang  suspended 
from  the  leaves  by  a  silken  thread.  When  young,  they 
eat  only  portions  of  the  surface  of  the  leaf ;  but  as  they 
grow  older  they  devour  all  but  the  stalk  and  principal 
veins,  and  passing  from  leaf  to  leaf  thus  strip  whole 
branches  of  their  foliage. 

This  pest  is  more  numerous  in  the  Middle,  than  in 
the  extreme  Northern  States,  and  I  have  always  found 
it  more  abundant  on  vines  growing  in  city  yards  than  in 
vineyards.  As  the  caterpillar  feeds  entirely  upon  the 
upper  surface  of  the  leaves,  it  can  be  readily  destroyed 
by  dusting  the  leaves  with  lime,  when  wet  with  dew,  or 
the  leaves  may  be  cut  off  with  the  insects  upon  them 
and  thrown  into  the  fire. 

Thrips,  Aphis  and  Vine  Scales. — These  are  all 
minute  insects,  and  live  by  sucking  the  juice,  or  sap, 
from  the  leaves,  succulent  shoots  and  half-mature  canes. 

The  insect  commonly  known  as  Thrip,  or  Leaf- 
hopper  (Erythroneura  vitis),  is  a  very  active  little  pest, 
jumping  many  times  its  own  length  when  disturbed.  It 
usually  congregates  in  large  numbers  on  the  under  side 


222  THE   GRAPE   CTJLTURIST. 

of  the  leaves,  puncturing  and  sucking  the  sap.  They 
may  be  destroyed  by  dusting  the  under  side  of  the  leaves 
with  Persian  insect  powder,  or  spraying  with  kerosene 
emulsion.  The  common  green  fly,  or  aphis,  is  a  well 
known  pest,  readily  destroyed  by  fumigating  the  plants 
with  tobacco,  or  drenching  them  with  strong  tobacco 
water.  Kerosene  emulsion  may  also  be  used  for  the 
same  purpose,  but  whatever  insecticide  is  employed, 
repeated  application  will  be  required  to  keep  any  and  all 
species  of  the  aphidcB  in  subjection. 

The  larvae  of  a  small  spotted  insect  called  the  Lady 
Bird,  or  Lady  Bug,  feeds  upon  the  aphis,  devouring  vast 
numbers  of  them.  The  Lady  Bird  is  the  gardeners' 
friend,  and  they  should  never  be  killed  if  it  can  be 
avoided.  These  little  beetles  are  usually  red  or  orange 
yellow,  with  small  black  spots ;  some  kinds  have  only 
two  spots,  others  have  as  many  as  nine.  They  are  very 
common,  and  many  has  been  the  crime  that  has  been 
laid  to  them,  of  which  they  were  entirely  innocent. 

The  Red  Spider  (Tetranychus  telarius)  is  one  of 
the  smallest  insects  that  infest  the  vine.  It  is  so  very 
minute  that  it  appears  as  only  a  small  red  speck,  and 
can  scarcely  be  seen  by  the  naked  eye.  It  usually  con- 
fines itself  to  the  under  side  of  the  leaf  of  vines  in  the 
house,  though  it  will  sometimes  make  its  appearance  on 
vines  in  small  gardens  and  do  considerable  damage,  espe- 
cially during  long  and  severe  drouths. 

They  spin  a  fine  web  over  the  under  surface  of  the 
leaf  as  a  kind  of  nest,  or  protection ;  here  they  live  in 
large  numbers,  and  by  puncturing  the  leaves  for  food, 
cause  it  to  turn  to  a  sickly  yellow  color.  The  upper 
surface  will  show  small  light-colored  spots  soon  after  the 
spider  commences  its  attacks  on  the  under  side. 

A  continued  warm  and  moist  atmosphere  is  death  to 
the  red  spider ;  but  while  we  are  destroying  them,  the 
aphis  would  be  enjoying  a  most  congenial  atmosphere, 


IKSECT    EXEMIE3   OJ?   THE   GRAPE. 

consequently  we  must  resort  to  other  means  than  mere 
atmospheric  changes  to  destroy  any  of  these  pests.  Sul- 
phur is  the  best  remedy  with  which  I  am  acquainted, 
and  the  one  upon  which  gardeners  mainly  depend.  It 
may  be  dusted  over  the  plants,  or  be  scattered  on  the 
soil  beneath  them.  When  used  in  the  house,  the  usual 
method  is  to  place  it  on  the  return  flue,  or  pipes,  being 
careful  not  to  place  the  sulphur  where  it  will  become  so 
hot  as  to  take  fire,  for  in  that  case  the  fumes  will  destroy 
the  plants  as  well  as  spiders.  There  is  but  little  danger 
of  its  taking  fire  if  placed  on  the  return  flue,  as  the  heat 
will  usually  be  just  sufficient  to  slowly  melt  the  sulphur, 
and  cause  it  to  give  off  its  fumes  slowly. 

Sometimes  the  sulphur  is  mixed  with  soft  soap  and 
water,  and  a  little  clay  added  to  make  the  composition 
of  the  consistency  of  thick  paint ;  this  is  then  applied  to 
the  pipes  and  flues,  when  the  sulphur  is  slowly  evapo- 
rated and  continues  giving  off  its  fumes  for  a  long  time. 
The  constant  fume  of  sulphur  is  not  needed  in  a  house ; 
besides,  it  is  very  disagreeable. 

The  Vine  Scale  is  occasionally  met,  but  it  is  not 
common.  To  the  unassisted  eye  it  appears  to  be  noth- 
ing more  than  a  small  scale,  without  the  least  appear- 
ance of  life.  The  scale  is  the  shell,  or  covering,  of  a 
very  minute  insect  that  pierces  the  bark  of  the  young 
shoots  and  sucks  its  juices.  Kerosene  emulsion  will 
destroy  these  pests,  or  a  strong  solution  of  potash — say 
one  pound  to  four  or  five  gallons  of  water — or  an  appli- 
cation of  pure  soft  soap. 

It  is  well,  to  wash  the  stems  of  all  vines  in  gardens 
with  potash  water  every  winter,  as  it  will  destroy 
insects  that  make  their  nests  in  the  crevices  of  the  bark. 
That  portion  of  the  solution  that  falls  upon  the  ground 
is  not  wasted,  because  it  furnishes  the  vine  with  potash, 
which  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  ingredients  of  all 
manures. 


THE   GRAPE   CULTUKIST. 

There  are  various  species  of  scale  pests  which 
occasionally  appear  upon  stunted  and  neglected  vines, 
but  they  rarely  attack  those  given  good  cultivation. 
Vines  grown  under  glass,  either  for  fruiting  or  propaga- 
tion, are  sometimes  infested  with  what  is  called  the 
Mealy-bug  (Dactylopius  adonidum),  but  this  and  kindred 
species  are  readily  destroyed  by  spraying  the  plants  with 
kerosene  emulsion.  The  original  formula  for  making 
the  emulsion  is,  "kerosene,  two  gallons  ;  common  yellow 
bar  soap,  one-half  pound ;  water,  one  gallon."  Shave 
up  the  soap  and  throw  it  into  the  water,  and  place  over 
a  fire  to  heat,  and  when  the  soap  is  all  dissolved  pour 
into  a  larger  vessel,  and  add  the  kerosene  to  the  hot  soap 
suds.  Immediately  churn  the  mixture  by  means  of  a 
force  pump,  or  large  hand  syringe,  for  five  or  ten  min- 
utes. The  emulsion,  as  churned,  forms  a  thin  cream, 
which  thickens  on  cooling.  Dilute  before  applying  to 
the  plants,  with  cold  water,  one  gallon  of  the  emulsion 
to  nine  of  water,  or  the  three  gallons  with  twenty-seven 
of  water,  making,  in  all,  thirty  gallons  when  ready  for 
use.  The  emulsion  should  be  applied  with  a  garden 
syringe  and  through  a  fine  rose  or  spraying  nozzle,  or 
any  of  the  modern  spraying  force  pumps  may  be  used 
for  the  purpose.  When  the  emulsion  is  to  be  applied  to 
miscellaneous  plants  in  a  greenhouse  I  have  found  that 
one  gallon  of  kerosene  to  one-half  pound  of  the  soap, 
and  the  usual  amount  of  water,  was  strong  enough  to 
kill  aphis  and  mealy  bugs,  and  less  likely  to  injure  the 
foliage  than  when  made  of  full  strength. 

Quite  recently  another  of  these  mealy  bugs,  or  scale 
insects,  has  been  discovered  infesting  grapevines,  espe- 
cially those  growing  in  village  and  city  gardens.  I 
refer  to  the  Cottony  Maple  Scale  (Pulvinaria  innumer- 
abilis,  Rathvon).  For  many  years  this  pest  was  supposed 
to  attack  only  the  Osage  Orange  and  the  Western  White, 
or  Soft  Maple  (Acer  dasycarpum).  As  this  species  of 


INSECT  ENEMIES  OF  THE   GRAPE. 


225 


maple  is  a  much  more  rapid  growing  tree  than  either 
the  common  Red  Maple  (A.  rubrum),  or  the  Sugar 
Maple  (A.  saccharinum),  it  long  since  became  very  pop- 
ular as  a  street  shade  tree  in  many  of  our  Eastern  cities 
and  villages,  and  it  is  now  thought  that  this  Maple  Cot- 
tony Scale  was  introduced  with  it  from  the  Western 
States.  But  it  does  not  matter  how  the  pest  was  intro- 
duced, it  is  enough  to  know  that  it  is  here,  and  in  un- 
numbered millions,  not  only  on  the  .two  species  of  soft 
maples,  but,  to  a  limited  extent,  on  the 
sugar  maples ;  and  from  these  it  swarms 
and  passes  to  grapevines,  American  and 
Japan  ivies,  and  various  other  vines  and 
shrubs.  The  many  thousands  of  soft 
maples  planted  in  the  streets  and  parks  of 
some  of  our  Eastern  cities  are,  at  this 
time,  a  reeking  mass  of  these  filthy  insects 
and  their  excretions. 

These  insects  appear  on  the  trees  and 
vines  in  the  form  of  oblong  brown  scales, 
Fig.  93,  varying  in  length  from  one-fifth 
to  one- third  of  an  inch.  Under  and 
around  these  scales  there  is  a  white,  fluffy, 
cottony  mass,  which,  in  May  and  June,  is 
filled  with  minute  eggs,  and  to  the  num- 
ber of  from  six  hundred  to  one  thousand. 
During  June  and  July  these  eggs  hatch 
and  the  young  lice  spread  in  various  direc- 
tions, but  soon  settle  down  on  the  underside  of  the 
leaves,  and  insert  their  beaks  and  begin  to  pump  out 
the  sap  for  food.  At  this  time  these  lice  secrete  a  sweet- 
ish liquid,  which  soon  coats  the  upper  sides  of  the  leaves 
upon  which  it  falls ;  much  of  it,  however,  falls  to  the 
ground,  coating  the  grass,  weeds  or  sidewalks  under- 
neath, catching  and  holding  any  dust  that  may  be  flying 
about  at  the  time.  These  nectar-like  excretions  also 
15 


FIG.  93. 


226  THE   GBAPE   CULTUKIST. 

attract  flies,  bees,  wasps  and  similar  insects.  Later  in 
the  season  the  lice  pass  from  the  leaves  to  the  branches 
of  the  trees,  usually  locating  on  the  underside,  where 
they  will  be  slightly  sheltered  from  storms.  On  grape- 
vines they  usually  cluster  near  the  lateral  twigs  on  the 
large  annual  canes,  but  sometimes  on  the  older  stems. 

Kerosene  emulsion  will  destroy  these  Cottony  Scales, 
and  the  best  time  to  apply  it  is  in  the  fall,  soon  after  the 
fruit  is  gathered,  and  repeat  the  application  in  spring, 
just  before  the  vines  begin  to  grow.  All  the  wood 
pruned  from  infested  vines  should  be  burned,  and  not 
used  for  propagation. 

The  Grape-Leaf  Louse  (Phylloxera  Vastatrix).— 
Long  before  the  first  edition  of  this  work  appeared  the 
cultivators  of  our  native  varieties  of  the  grape  had  occa- 
sionally noticed  small  galls  on  the  leaves,  but  most  fre- 
quently on  those  of  the  Clinton.  These  galls,  however, 
attracted  very  little  attention,  probably  because  they  did 
not  seem  to  seriously  interfere  with  the  growth  of  the 
plants ;  besides,  they  were  not  constant ;  some  seasons 
being  very  abundant,  then  again  almost,  or  quite,  disap- 
pearing. It  was  not  until  the  year  1856  that  we  find 
any  published  reference  to  these  galls,  and  this  appeared 
in  the  first  annual  report  of  the  late  Dr.  Asa  Fitch,  the 
State  entomologist  of  New  York.  Dr.  Fitch  merely 
refers  (p.  158)  to  the  "grape-leaf  louse,"  to  which  he 
gave  the  name  of  Pemphigus  vitifolice,  and  says  "that 
it  inhabits  galls  upon  the  margin  of  the  leaves."  "  They 
are  of  a  red,  or  pale  yellow  color,  and  their  surface  is 
somewhat  uneven  and  woolly.  They  are  met  with  the 
fore  part  of  June,  having  only  the  wingless  females 
enclosed  within  them." 

He  again  refers  to  this  insect  in  his  third  report, 
but  in  such  a  brief  and  vague  manner  that  it  is  evident 
that  he  really  knew  very  little  of  the  habits  of  a  pest 
which  was  soon  to  destroy  many  thousands  of  acres  of 
the  old  and  long  established  vineyards  of  Europe. 


INSECT  ENEMIES   OF  THE   GRAPE.  227 

The  introduction  of  several  new  and  promising  varie- 
ties  of  the  native  grapes,  notably  the  Delaware,  Diana, 
lona  and  Concord,  during  the  decade  between  1850-60, 
gave  a  new  and  somewhat  surprising  impetus  to  grape 
culture  in  this  country,  and  the  demand  for  vines  be- 
came so  great  that,  for  a  time,  many  of  the  nurserymen 
made  the  propagation  of  the  newer  varieties  a  specialty, 
both  in  the  open  ground  as  well  as  under  glass,  while 
many  other  persons  who  had  not  previously  been  in  the 
business  entered  it,  with  more  or  less  enthusiasm,  and, 
in  some  instances,  erecting  extensive  ranges  of  houses 
for  the  sole  purpose  of  rapidly  propagating  all  the  newer, 
as  well  as  older  varieties  which  were  in  demand.  Among 
the  largest  and  most  noted  establishments  of  this  kind, 
that  of  the  late  Dr.  0.  W.  Grant,  of  lona  Island,  near 
Peekskill,  N.  Y. ,  became  the  most  famous,  and  remained 
so  for  several  years. 

About  1859  it  was  noticed  that  the  young  vines  were 
somewhat  defective  in  their  roots,  and  galls,  from  the 
size  of  a  pinhead,  and  up  to  that  of  small  peas,  were 
more  or  less  numerous  on  the  fibers  of  those  raised  in  the 
houses,  and,  later,  the  same  kind  of  galls  on  vines 
planted  in  the  open  ground  on  the  Island.  During  the 
season  of  1860-61,  and  later,  these  root-galls  became  so 
abundant  that  a  system  of  combing  was  practiced,  to 
remove  them  before  the  vines  were  sent  out  to  customers. 
I  have,  myself,  seen  heaps  containing  several  bushels 
each,  of  these  galls,  that  had  been  combed  from  the  roots 
of  pot-grown  plants  as  they  were  being  prepared  for  sale. 
Neither  Dr.  Grant  nor  any  of  his  assistants  knew  what 
caused  these  galls  on  the  roots,  but  it  was  supposed,  at 
the  time,  they  were  due  to  either  over-stimulation  and 
a  forced  growth,  or  to  some  defect  in  the  soil.  It  is 
quite  probable  that  these  gails  were  to  be  seen  on  vines 
in  other  establishments  where  vines  were  propagated 
under  glass,  but  I  had  no  occasion,  at  the  time,  to  make 


228  THE   GRAPE  CULTURIST. 

any  extended  investigation  in  this  direction ;  conse- 
quently, cannot  speak  from  personal  knowledge  on  this 
point.  A  few  years  later  we  began  to  hear  of  the  out- 
break of  a  serious  disease  in  the  vineyards  of  France, 
and  for  a  time  it  was  supposed  to  be  a  fungus,  causing  a 
rotting,  orpourridis,  as  it  was  designated  by  the  French 
vineyardists.  In  the  spring  of  1868,  Prof.  J.  E.  Plan- 
chon,  of  Montpelier,  announced  that  the  malady  was 
caused  by  the  puncture  of  a  minute  insect  of  the  plant- 
louse  family  of  Apliididce,  and  bearing  a  close  resem- 
blance to  the  gall-louse  so  often  seen  on  the  leaves  of  the 
Clinton  and  a  few  other  varieties  of  the  grape  in  this 
country.  Later  in  the  same  year  Prof.  Planchon  had  so 
carefully  and  thoroughly  studied  this  pest  that  he  was 
enabled  to  fully  describe  it  in  its  various  stages,  and  then 
he  gave  it  the  name  which  it  now  bears,  viz.,  Phylloxera 
vastatrix.  But  Prof.  Planchon  was  not  aware,  at  the 
time,  that  the  insect  he  was  investigating,  and  which 
was  ravaging  the  vineyards  of  France,  was  the  same  pest 
that  lived  in  the  galls  on  the  leaves  and  roots  of  vines 
here,  and  the  credit  of  discovering  the  identity  of  the 
two  is  due  to  Dr.  C.  V.  Riley,  then  State  entomologist 
of  Missouri,  and  later  chief  of  the  Division  of  Entomol- 
ogy, U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 

Dr.  Eiley's  investigations  of  this  pest  have  been  ex- 
ceedingly thorough,  and  extending  over  many  years, 
leaving,  as  it  would  seem,  very  little  more  to  be  learned 
in  regard  to  its  habits  and  history.  The  literature  of 
the  subject  has  become  so  extensive  that  it  would  require 
a  dozen  good  sized  volumes  to  give  even  an  epitome  of 
what  has  been  published  in  this  country,  to  say  nothing 
of  the  voluminous  reports  of  specialists  which  have  ap- 
peared in  France  and  other  European  countries ;  conse- 
quently, want  of  space  compels  me  to  refer  only  to  some 
of  the  more  prominent  characteristics  of  this  insect. 

As  is  now  well  known,  there  are  two  distinct  forms, 
or  types,  which  are  very  constant;  one,  the  gallacola, 


INSECT  ENEMIES  OF  THE  GRAPE.  229 

lives  in  galls  on  the  leaves ;  the  other,  called  radicicola, 
on  the  swellings,  or  galls  of  the  roots.  In  and  about 
these  root-galls  winged  and  wingless  lice  of  both  sexes, 
also  the  eggs  and  larvae,  are  to  be  found,  on  infested 
vines  during  the  summer  and  autumn  months;  in  fact, 
these  pests  appear  to  reach  their  most  perfect  stage 
among  the  roots.  Those  inhabiting  the  leaf -galls,  being 
females  only,  and,  like  other  species  of  the  Apliidce, 
increase  by  parthenogenetic  maternity  for  several  gener- 
ations in  succession ;  that  is,  every  egg  laid  by  the 
mother  louse  brings  forth  a  fertile  female,  and  this  pro- 
cess continues  until  all  the  leaves  on  the  vines  are  de- 
stroyed, or  the  cool  weather  checks  growth  ;  the  late,  or 
last  generation  of  lice  seek  the  roots,  where  they  hiber- 
nate, either  in  the  egg  or  larvae  stage. 

During  the  rapid  and  forced  propagation  of  the  Amer- 
ican varieties  of  the  grape,  which  began  about  1858,  and 
continued  during  the  following  ten  years,  the  Phylloxera 
was  widely  distributed  and  flourished  on  nearly  all  slow- 
growing  and  enfeebled  vines.  In  1865  I  planted  a  spec- 
imen vineyard  of  some  two  hundred  varieties,  and  a 
large  number  came  from  lona  Island,  and  some  from 
other  establishments  where  propagating  under  glass  was 
practiced,  and,  as  a  result,  the  Phylloxera  was  intro- 
duced and  appeared  to  thrive  on  all  the  hybrids  and 
most  of  the  varieties  not  adapted  to  my  soil  and  climate. 
When  Prof.  Planchon  came  to  this  country  to  investi- 
gate the  Phylloxera,  in  1872,  under  the  auspices  of  the 
French  government,  he  spent  a  day  in  examining  the 
vines  in  my  grounds,  and,  as  I  had  concluded  to  destroy 
my  specimen  vineyard,  I  allowed  him  to  dig  up  as  many 
vines  as  he  wished  to  examine,  and,  I  will  say,  we  found 
root-galls  in  great  abundance.  The  following  year  I 
dug  up  and  burned  every  one  of  the  two  hundred  varie- 
ties and  set  a  new  plantation,  using  only  healthy  plants. 

I  have  employed  no  remedies  or  preventives,  and 
now,  after  twenty  years,  can  say  that  no  pure  native 


230  THE   GKAPE   CULTUR1ST. 

variety  has  been  seriously  injured  since  by  this  pest. 
The  Phylloxera,  being  a  native  insect,  it  is  not  at  all 
likely  to  ever  become  a  serious  pest  in  our  eastern  vine- 
yards, because  the  indigenous  species  are  capable  of  re- 
sisting its  attacks  unless  they  are  enfeebled  by  forced 
propagation,  neglect  of  cultivation,  or  planting  in  uncon- 
genial soils  and  climates.  It  is,  however,  a  destructive 
pest  to  all  foreign  varieties,  and  many  hybrids,  as  the 
vineyardists  of  Europe  have  learned,  to  their  cost.  It 
is  now  believed,  and  it  is  probably  true,  that  this  insect 
has  been  the  principal  cause  of  the  failure  of  all  the  vine- 
yards planted  with  European  varieties  in  the  eastern 
States  during  the  last  century,  and  in  the  early  years  of 
the  present  one.  Mildew  and  black  rot,  and  other  fun- 
gus diseases,  may  have,  also,  been  enemies ;  but,  what- 
ever the  cause,  it  is  well  known  that  the  foreign  varie- 
ties do  not  thrive  anywhere  in  the  United  States  east  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains.  In  California,  however,  they 
have  been  cultivated  with  great  success,  and  for  many 
years ;  but  the  Phylloxera  has  appeared  in  the  vineyards 
of  that  favored  region,  and  what  the  results  will  be  time 
alone  must  determine. 

In  the  way  of  remedies  there  is  little  to  be  said,  be- 
cause there  are  none  that  have,  as  yet,  proved  effectual 
under  all  conditions.  In  France  the  employment  of  the 
most  vigorous  of  the  American  species  for  stocks  upon 
which  to  graft  the  foreign  varieties,  has  been  extensively 
practiced,  with  excellent  results ;  but  this  comes  more 
in  the  line  of  preventives  than  a  destroyer  of  the  pest, 
and,  in  my  opinion,  the  vineyardists  of  the  Atlantic 
States  have  only  to  plant  clean,  healthy  vines  of  the 
well  known  native  resistant  varieties,  and  then  give  them 
good  cultivation  and  judicious  pruning,  to  escape  any 
serious  loss  from  the  attacks  of  the  grape  Phylloxera. 
Of  course  care  will  ever  be  required  in  the  selection  of 
congenial  soils  and  locations  for  vineyards,  because,  if 


FUNGUS  DISEASES.  231 

the  vines  become  weak  and  feeble  from  any  cause,  they 
are  sure  to  be  attacked  by  parasites  of  some  kind,  for  it 
seems  to  be  a  universal  law  of  nature,  in  both  the  animal 
and  vegetable  kingdom,  that  nothing  possessing  life  lives 
very  long  after  it  loses  the  power  of  resisting  its  natural 
enemies. 


CHAPTER  XX. 

FUNGUS   DISEASES. 

Until  quite  recently  very  little  was  known  of  the  na- 
ture or  habits  of  the  fungus  diseases  of  the  grape,  beyond 
the  bare  fact  that  they  were  frequently  very  destructive 
in  all  parts  of  the  country  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 
Collectively  they  were  enemies  which  the  vineyardist 
sought  to  control,  but  with  very  unsatisfactory  results. 
In  some  instances  dusting  the  vines  with  lime,  sulphur, 
or  both  combined,  seemed  to  check  these  diseases  :  then, 
again,  all  remedies  failed.  Many  of  the  earlier  vineyards 
of  Ohio,  and  throughout  the  Mississippi  valley,  as  well 
as  those  in  the  east  and  south,  were  abandoned,  owing 
to  the  prevalence  and  destructiveness  of  the  diseases 
known  under  the  names  of  mildew  and  black  rot.  But 
the  planting  of  new  vineyards  continued,  the  inexperi- 
enced, as  well  as  experienced  vineyardist  trusting  to  luck, 
or  skill,  for  obtaining  remunerative  crops  of  fruit.  That 
many  were  successful  is  evident,  from  the  constantly 
increasing  amount  of  fine  grapes  received  in  all  of  the 
larger  cities  and  villages,  besides  the  many  hundreds  of 
tons  annually  used  in  making  wine.  But  successful  as 
grape  culture,  as  an  industry,  has  become,  there  are 
still  many  failures,  owing  to  the  prevalence  of  fungus 
diseases. 


232 


THE   GRAPE   CULTURIST. 


To  investigate  these  thoroughly  and  discover  remedies 
could  scarcely  be  expected  of  individuals,  and,  happily, 
it  was  not  necessary,  for  the  problem  has  been  fully  and 

satisfactorily  solved 
for  us  in  France, 
where  there  is  no  ces- 
sation of  experiment- 
al work  in  field  and 
vineyard,  and  all  con- 
ducted under  the  aus- 
;-'  pices  of  the  govern- 
ment and  various 
schools  of  agriculture. 
Ever  since  the  reme- 
dies for  fungus  dis- 
eases of  the  grape 
were  given  to  the  pub- 
lic— some  half  dozen 
or  more  years  since — 
the  reports  of  the 
Department  of  Ag- 
riculture at  Washing- 
ton, and  the  bulletins 
of  the  State  Experi- 
mental Stations,  have 
teemed  with  advice  to 
vineyardists,  and 
fruit  growers  in  gen- 
eral, all  recommend- 
ing the  French  fungi- 
cides as  the  best  as 
yet  discovered.  Want 
of  space  will  prevent 
me  from  giving  more 
than  a  very  brief  de- 
FIG.  94.  scription  of  the  most 


FUNGUS   DISEASES.  233 

destructive  fungi  attacking  the  grape  in  this  country, 
and  in  doing  that  1  shall  avail  myself  of  an  excellent 
report  on  "Fungus  Diseases  of  the  Grape,  and  Their 
Treatment,"  by  B.  T.  Galloway,  chief  of  the  division  of 
Vegetable  Pathology,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 

"There  are  but  four  fungus  diseases  of  the  grape  in 
this  country  which  occasion  sufficient  damage  to  warrant 
our  attention,  and  they  are  (1),  The  grape  Peronospora, 
or  downy  mildew  ;  (2),  powdery  mildew  ;  (3),  black  rot ; 
and  (4),  anthracnose." 

Grape  Peronospora,  or  Downy  Mildew,  Brown 
Rot  and  Gray  Rot. — The  fungus  causing  these  diseases 
is  known  to  botanists  as  Peronospora  viticola.  It 
attacks  the  leaves,  young  wood,  flowers  and  fruit.  On 
the  leaves  it  usually  manifests  itself  first  in  the  form  of 
greenish  yellow,  or  brownish  spots  on  the  upper  surface, 
while  on  the  lower  side  corresponding  parts  are  covered 
with  a  white,  frost-like  growth.  As  the  disease  pro- 
gresses the  frost-like  patches  may  disappear,  leaving 
only  the  brown  leaf,  which  soon  dries  up  and  falls  off. 
Young  wood  and  flowers  are  affected  in  the  same  way, 
and  the  young  berries,  if  attacked,  usually  cease  growing 
and  appear  as  shown  in  Fig.  94.  This  form  of  the  dis- 
ease is  known  as  the  downy  mildew,  and  in  some  sections 
it  causes  the  only  serious  damage.  On  the  fruit  the 
fungus  occurs  in  two  forms,  causing  what  is  known  as 
brown,  or  gray  rot.  The  former  disease,  as  a  rule,  does 
not  make  its  appearance  until  the  berries  are  nearly 
grown.  At  this  time  a  brownish-purple  spot  will  appear 
on  one  side  of  the  berry,  and  in  a  short  time  the  whole 
fruit  is  involved,  turning  brown,  and  ultimately  becomes 
soft  and  wrinkled.  In  gray  rot  the  fruit  is  covered  with 
the  same  frost-like  growth  seen  on  the  leaves.  The  ber- 
ries are  literally  plastered  together  with  the  fungus. 

Powdery  Mildew  (  Uncinula  spiralis). — This  usu- 
ally appears  about  midsummer,  attacking  the  leaves, 


234  THE   GRAPE   CULTUEIST. 

young  wood  and  berries.  Occasionally,  however,  it 
appears  earlier  in  the  season,  and  in  such  cases  is  often 
very  destructive  to  the  plants.  It  forms  on  the  various 
parts  attacked,  a  powdery,  mealy  growth,  this  being 
very  marked  on  the  leaves,  where  it  is  usually  more 
abundant  upon  the  upper  surface.  The  berries  attacked 
often  crack,  exposing  the  seed  in  a  very  peculiar  manner. 
Upon  close  examination  of  any  part  of  the  vine  affected 
with  powdery  mildew,  fine  delicate  threads,  which  make 
up  the  vegetative  portions  of  the  fungus,  may  be  seen. 
This,  in  itself,  is  enough  to  distinguish  the  disease  from 
downy  mildew,  the  only  malady  for  which  it  is  likely  to 
be  mistaken. 

Black  Rot  (Laestadia  Bidwellii). — This  is  such  an 
old,  widespread,  and  well  known  disease,  that  it  is 
scarcely  necessary  to  describe  it.  But  there  may  be  some 
vineyardists  who  do  not  know  that  the  fungus  usually 
appears  first  on  the  leaves  and  young  shoots,  in  the  form 
of  reddish  brown,  or  black  spots,  and  some  two  or  three 
weeks  later  it  attacks  the  berries,  and  the  first  indica- 
tions of  its  presence  on  these  are  one  or  more  brown,  or 
blackish  spots  on  the  skin.  The  fruit  soon  turns  brown, 
then  black,  and  finally  becomes  hard  and  ceases  to  grow, 
and  withers  upon  the  stalks.  Fig.  95. 

Anthracnose  (SpJiaceloma  am,pelinum),  is  caused 
by  this  microscopic  fungus,  and,  like  the  downy  mildew 
and  black  rot,  it  attacks  the  leaves,  young  tender  shoots, 
and  the  immature  berries.  The  leaves,  when  first 
attacked,  show  minute  blackish-brown  spots,  which  are 
surrounded  with  slightly  raised  darker  colored  margins. 
On  the  shoots  the  disease  appears  very  much  as  it  does 
on  the  leaves,  but  as  it  progresses  the  spots  become 
darker  at  the  center,  and  often  run  together,  forming 
elongated  patches,  which  gradually  eat  their  way  into 
the  wood. 

Anthracnose  on  the  fruit  is  usually  called  bird's-eye 
rot,  and  first  appears  as  a  blackish  or  brown  circular 


FUNGUS    DISEASES. 


FIG.  95. 


236  THE   GEAPE   CULTURIST. 

spot  surrounded  by  a  narrow  dark  rim.  As  the  spots 
increase  in  size  the  color  undergoes  various  changes; 
sometimes  there  is  a  zone  of  vermillion  surrounding  a 
grayish  center.  The  berries  may  shrivel  up,  or  be 
developed  unequally,  the  affected  side  being  somewhat 
flattened. 

Remedies  and  their  Preparation. — There  are  four 
fungicides  which  extended  experiments  have  shown  to 
be  efficacious  in  checking  and  destroying  the  fungus  dis- 
eases described.  These  are  (1),  a  simple  solution  of 
copper  sulphate ;  (2),  the  Bordeaux  mixture ;  (3),  the 
ammoniacal  solution  of  copper  carbonate;  and  (4),  eau 
celeste.  There  may  be  other  fungicides  equally  as  good, 
but  the  preceding  have  been  thoroughly  tested  and  rec- 
ommended by  those  who  have  used  them  the  most 
extensively. 

Simple  Solution  of  Copper  Sulphate. — This  is 
prepared  by  simply  dissolving  one  pound  of  the  copper 
sulphate  in  twenty-five  gallons  of  water. 

Bordeaux  Mixture. — The  formula  now  in  general 
use  is  that  containing  six  pounds  of  copper  sulphate  and 
four  pounds  of  lime  and  twenty-two  gallons  of  water. 
The  sulphate  should  be  dissolved  by  throwing  it  into 
about  a  half  barrel  of  water,  stirring  it  occasionally  to 
hasten  the  operation.  In  another  vessel  slake  the  lime 
with  sufficient  water  to  make  a  thin  whitewash,  and  then 
pour  this  into  the  barrel  containing  the  sulphate,  strain- 
ing it  through  an  old  sack  to  remove  sticks  and  undis- 
solved  pieces  of  lime.  Fill  up  to  make  the  twenty-two 
gallons,  and  the  solution  is  ready  for  use.  Of  course,  a 
larger  or  smaller  quantity  may  be  made  at  one  time,  pre- 
serving the  proportions  of  the  ingredients  very  nearly, 
although  slight  variations  will  scarcely  be  noticed  in  the 
results.  If  the  mixture  should  spot  the  leaves,  then 
reduce  the  proportion  of  the  sulphate. 

Ammoniacal  Solution  of  Copper  Carbonate. — 
In  an  ordinary  water  pail  dissolve  five  ounces  of  copper 


FUKGUS   DISEASES.  237 

carbonate  in  three  pints  of  spirits  of  ammonia  having  a 
strength  of  26°.  If  the  three  pints  of  ammonia  are  not 
sufficient  to  completely  dissolve  the  copper,  add  as  much 
more  as  required.  When  fully  dissolved  pour  the  solu- 
tion into  a  barrel  and  fill  up  with  water. 

Eau  Celeste. — Dissolve  two  pounds  of  copper  sul- 
phate in  eight  gallons  of  water,  and  when  thoroughly 
dissolved  add  three  pints  of  spirits  of  ammonia,  and 
dilute  to  fifty  gallons.  Where  the  vines  have  thin 
leaves  this  solution  will  sometimes  burn  or  spot  the  foli- 
age, and  a  modified  formula  is  preferable,  viz. :  Dis- 
solve four  pounds  of  the  copper  sulphate  in  ten  or  twelve 
gallons  of  water.  Add  three  pints  of  ammonia,  and 
dilute  to  fifty  gallons,  then  add  five  pounds  of  common 
washing  soda.  Stir  or  allow  to  stand  until  the  soda  is 
dissolved,  and  the  solution  is  ready  for  use. 

These  remedies  are  not  given  because  it  is  supposed 
that  they  will  be  required  in  all  localities,  for  there  are 
many  in  which  none  of  the  fungus  diseases  have,  as  yet, 
been  sufficiently  destructive  to  cause  any  serious  loss, 
but  whenever  required,  it  is  well  to  know  that  remedies 
are  at  hand  and  may  be  applied  at  a  cost  of  not  more 
than  two  or  three  cents  per  vine.  There  are  also  some 
varieties  far  more  susceptible  to  the  attacks  of  the  mi- 
croscopic fungi  than  others,  and  in  case  they  are  worth 
preserving,  the  fungicides  should  be  applied ;  but,  as  a 
rule,  I  do  not  think  vineyardists  will  care  to  cultivate 
varieties  which  require  constant  dosing  to  keep  them  in 
a  moderately  healthy  condition,  at  least,  not  with  the 
present  price  of  grapes  in  our  markets. 

Application  of  Remedies. — For  the  downy  mildew 
and  gray  rot,  either  of  the  solutions  described  will  answer 
very  well ;  but  the  ammoniacal  copper  carbonate  is  usu- 
ally preferred,  because  the  cheapest,  and  less  liable  to 
injure  the  foliage.  The  first  application  should  be  made 
about  the  time  the  fruit  is  well  set  on  the  vines,  and 


238  THE   GRAPE   CULTUEIST. 

then  repeat  the  spraying  every  two  weeks  until  the  fruit 
begins  to  color.  The  eau  celeste  is  said  to  be  preferred 
by  the  vineyardists  of  Ohio,  for  the  downy  mildew,  and 
in  some  other  northern  localities,  but  in  the  Middle  and 
Southern  States  it  appears  to  injure  the  foliage  more  than 
the  simple  carbonate  copper  solution.  For  powdery 
mildew  alone  ammoniacal  copper  carbonate  solution  is 
recommended,  but  almost  any  of  the  copper  solutions 
will  answer.  Unfortunately,  however,  the  powdery  mil- 
dew seldom  exists  alone,  and  for  this  reason  it  is  better 
to  apply  the  Bordeaux  mixture  or  eau  celeste  at  once, 
and  destroy  the  various  species  of  fungi  which  may  be 
present  on  the  vines. 

In  treating  the  vines  for  black  rot,  the  first  applica- 
tion of  fungicides  should  be  made  early  in  spring,  before 
the  buds  begin  to  swell,  and  with  the  simple  solution  of 
copper  sulphate.  Then,  when  the  leaves  are  about  half 
grown,  apply  Bordeaux  mixture,  and,  a  few  weeks 
later,  spray  with  ammoniacal  carbonate  solution.  But 
the  treatment  is  greatly  varied,  some  vineyardists  prefer- 
ring one  fungicide,  while  others  depend  entirely  upon  the 
simple  solution  of  copper,  or  use  this  and  the  Bordeaux 
mixture  alternately.  For  anthracnose  the  Bordeaux 
mixture  is  most  extensively  used,  and  appears  to  give 
the  best  results. 

Method  of  Applying  Remedies. — The  application 
of  all  the  various  fungicides  should  be  in  the  form  of  a 
fine  spray,  in  order  to  reach  every  part  of  the  vine.  By 
such  means  a  very  small  quantity  of  the  solution  is  made 
to  wet  a  very  large  surface,  and  without  drenching  the 
vines.  This  is  now  quite  practicable  with  almost  any  of 
the  modern  spraying  pumps,  of  which  there  are  many 
forms  and  sizes  to  be  obtained  of  dealers  in  agricultural 
and  horticultural  implements,  and  in  almost  eyery  city 
and  village  in  the  country.  If  the  amateur  with  a  few 
vines  does  not  care  to  purchase  an  expensive  appa- 


DESCRIPTION   OF   VARIETIES.  239 

ratus,  he  can  do  good  work  with  one  of  the  common 
brass  syringes  such  as  florists  often  use  in  their  green- 
houses, for  applying  kerosene  emulsion  and  other  liquid 
insecticides. 


CHAPTER  XXI. 

DESCRIPTION    OF   VARIETIES. 

Of  the  one  hundred  and  thirty  varieties  named  and 
briefly  described  in  the  first  edition  of  this  work  (1864), 
scarcely  more  than  a  dozen  can  be  admitted  into  the 
present  list  of  varieties  worthy  of  cultivation.  Nearly 
all  of  the  others  have  either  become  obsolete,  or  merely 
retained,  in  some  of  the  larger  collections  of  native 
grapes.  But  new  varieties  have  been  raised  in  immense 
numbers,  of  late  years,  and  it  would  not  now  be  at  all 
difficult  to  double  my  former  list,  and  then  not  exhaust 
the  names  of  highly  extolled  favorites  to  be  found  in 
nurserymen's  catalogues,  and  of  those  who  make  the 
propagation  of  the  grape  a  specialty.  The  ephemeral 
life  of  a  large  proportion  of  the  older  sorts  warns  me  not 
to  place  too  much  confidence  in  the  new ;  and  yet  it 
must  be  admitted  that  the  cultivators  of  this  fruit  have 
learned  much  by  observation  and  experience  during  the 
past  three  decades  ;  consequently,  they  are  better  able  to 
judge  of  the  real  merits  of  the  new  and  untried  varieties 
than  ever  before.  That  this  experience  is  producing 
excellent  results  is  quite  apparent,  in  the  improved  flavor 
of  some  of  the  newer  varieties  disseminated  within  the 
past  few  years,  by  those  who  make  a  specialty  of  raising 
seedlings ;  for  they  have  learned  that  cultivators  are 
seeking  something  better  than  those  which  they  have 
previously  possessed,  and  if  such  cannot  be  had  it  would 
be  folly  to  attempt  to  make  a  change.  Some  few  of  the 


240  THE  GRAPE  CULTURIST. 

old  favorites,  like  the  Concord,  Catawba  and  Delaware, 
hold  their  own,  and  even  lead  in  the  market,  however 
closely  pressed  they  may  be  by  more  recent  productions. 

Rogers'  Hybrids,  which  at  one  time  gave  promise  of 
being  valuable  acquisitions,  have  lost  ground  rapidly, 
and  of  the  twenty  or  more  of  those  first  introduced  and 
disseminated  under  numbers,  and  later  by  name,  not 
more  than  a  half  dozen  remain  in  general  cultivation, 
and  of  these  few  are  ever  seen  in  market.  Just  why 
these  grapes  were  pushed  aside  it  might  be  difficult  to 
determine,  for  there  are  really  some  good  and  valuable 
varieties  among  them,  and  these  show  very  little,  if  any, 
of  the  foreign  blood  which  it  was  claimed  they  possessed. 

A  few  years  later  another  and  very  distinct  lot  of 
hybrids  were  introduced  by  Mr.  J.  H.  Ricketts,  of  New- 
burgh,  N.  Y.,  whose  skill  as  a  hybridizer  of  the  grape  has 
probably  never  been  surpassed  in  this  or  any  other 
country.  But,  unfortunately,  he  selected  poor  material 
for  the  foundation  of  the  structure  he  hoped  to  build  ; 
for  the  foreign  blood  (  Vitis  vinifera),  when  intermingled 
with  that  of  our  native  species,  has  always  proved  to  be 
an  enfeebling  element  in  this  climate,  and  very  few  vari- 
eties of  such  a  mixed  parentage  have  ever  become  pop- 
ular with  vineyardists.  Perhaps,  with  the  free  use  of 
the  recently  approved  fungicides,  some  of  these  hybrids 
may  become  worthy  of  more  extended  cultivation,  and  it 
might  be  well,  for  those  who  have  the  means  and  incli- 
nation, to  give  them  a  fair  trial  under  such  conditions. 

Many  other  hybridists  are  in  the  field,  and  some  of 
their  productions  are,  to  say  the  least,  promising,  but  it 
is  well  for  the  practical  vineyardist  to  keep  in  mind  the 
fact  that  a  variety  may  succeed  in  one  locality,  and  not 
in  another,  and  for  this  reason  we  are  rarely  enabled  to 
determine  its  value  from  a  single  vine,  or  even  a  half 
dozen,  growing  in  the  grounds  of  the  originator,  or  those 
of  some  friend  who  is  coddling  the  plants  because  they 


DESCRIPTION   OF  VARIETIES.  241 

arc  new,  rare,  and  believed  to  be  very  precious.  It  is 
only  when  varieties  enter  into  general  cultivation,  or 
over  an  extended  region  of  country,  that  we  can  begin 
to  form  some  idea  of  their  commercial  value,  and  no 
matter  what  our  individual  tastes  may  be,  we  must  cater 
to  that  of  the  general  public  if  we  expect  to  get  a  fair 
return  for  our  labor  in  the  vineyard.  Of  course,  I  am 
not  disposed  to  inveigh  against  the  special  favorites  of 
the  vineyardist,  nor  of  the  amateur  with  only  a  vine  or 
two  in  his  garden,  for  these  usually  afford  the  cultivator 
the  most  pleasure  and  yield  fruit  far  superior  to  that 
grown  for  market.  A  smooth,  agreeable  flavor,  even  if 
it  is  not  rich,  will  better  suit  the  masses  than  a  rich 
fruit  with  peculiar  flavor,  for  these  will  only  suit  people 
with  peculiar  individual  tastes. 

A  grape  that  possesses  but  very  little  sugar  and  very 
little  acid  may  be  agreeable,  but  not  rich  ;  for  a  fruit,  to 
be  of  the  best  quality,  must  contain  both  sugar  and 
acids  in  abundance,  along  with  the  other  ingredients 
that  are  found  in  all  good  grapes.  The  Isabella,  which 
so  long  held  the  foremost  place  in  the  markets  of  the 
Eastern  States,  is  one  of  those  feeble  flavored,  agreeable 
varieties,  and  the  Concord,  which,  during  the  past  two 
or  three  decades  has  taken  its  place,  belongs  to  the  same 
group  and  species,  and,  while  it  is  far  from  being  either 
rich  or  delicious,  it  is  passably  good  and  agreeable  to 
those  who  have  not  been  accustomed  to  anything  better. 
The  fruits  that  are  most  readily  accepted  by  the  great 
majority  of  consumers  are  those  which  do  not  possess 
any  very  pronounced  distinctive  flavor,  although  it  must 
be  admitted  that  long  continued  familiarity  and  use  has, 
in  many  instances,  tended  to  lead  people  to  tolerate,  and 
even  acquire  a  taste  for,  rank  and  distinctive  flavors  in 
both  food  and  luxuries. 

There  has  been,  and  there  is  still,  much  discussion 
as  to  what  constitutes  best  quality  in  a  grape,  and  so 
16 


242 


THE   GEAPE   CULTURIST. 


long  as  we  allow  some  particular  characteristic  to  be  our 
guide,  instead  of  the  whole,  we  shall  never  settle  the 
question.  One  person  admires  a  large  grape,  while 
another  cares  nothing  about  size,  but  wants  sweetness ; 
while  still  another  accepts  acidity  as  less  cloying  than 
too  much  of  the  saccharine ;  but  these  are  only  matters 
of  taste,  and  do  not  affect  quality ;  for  quality  in  a  grape 
is  essentially  a  compound,  while  taste  is  simple. 

Some  of  the  requisites  of  a  grape  of  first  quality, 
and  belonging  to  our  indigenous  species  are  :     1st.  A 


FIG.  96. 


FIG.  97. 


FIG.  98. 


FIG.  99. 


FIG.  100. 


FIG.  101. 


large  amount  of  sugar.  2d.  A  large  amount  of  acid. 
3d.  A  brittle,  tender  pulp ;  if  it  is  nearly  a  liquid  so 
much  the  better.  4th.  No  strong  distinctive  flavor. 
5th.  Large  and  moderately  compact  bunch.  6th.  Large 
berry.  7th.  Small  seeds.  8th.  Berries  adhering  firmly 
to  their  peduncles.  9th.  Thin  skin,  but  sufficiently 
tough  to  prevent  bursting. 

These  characteristics  refer  more  particularly  to  table 
grapes,  as  wine  grapes  may  possess  particular  characters 


DESCRIPTION   OF   VARIETIES.  243 

and  flavors  that  would  detract  from  their  value  as  dessert 
fruits,  and  still  be  unsurpassed  for  wine.  The  most 
popular  dessert  grapes  are  seldom  the  best  for  wine,  or, 
at  least,  they  are  less  frequently  used  for  this  purpose. 
The  form  and  corresponding  size  of  our  native  varieties 
may  be  seen  by  reference  to  the  following  figures  :  Fig. 
96  is  what  is  usually  termed  small ;  Fig.  97  medium ; 
Fig.  98  large ;  Fig.  99  very  large ;  these  are  all  round, 
or  spherical ;  Fig.  100  oval ;  Fig.  101  oblong  oval,  a  rare 
form  among  our  native  varieties. 

In  the  following  list  I  shall  only  attempt  to  name 
the  best  of  the  well  known  varieties,  which  are  believed 
to  possess  sufficient  merit  to  make  them  worthy  of  being 
retained  in  cultivation.  This  will  be  followed  with 
another,  containing  the  names  of  the  principal  new  vari- 
eties, or  those  which  have  not  been  sufficiently  dissem- 
inated to  allow  their  merits  to  become  well  known  among 
grape  growers,  but  are  supposed  to  give  promise  of  be- 
coming valuable.  In  the  third  section  the  old,  obsolete, 
worthless  and  doubtful  varieties  will  be  catalogued,  as  a 
kind  of  historical  record  of  the  fruits  which,  in  their 
day,  served  as  incentive  to  the  vineyardist  to  seek  some- 
thing better. 

Agawam  (Rogers'  Hybrid  No.  15). — Bunch  large, 
loose,  usually  shouldered.  Berries  large,  skin  thick,  red 
or  amber;  pulp  rather  tough,  but  juicy,  with  an 
aromatic  sweet  taste  when  fully  ripe.  Vine  a  rank 
grower,  with  large,  thick  leaves,  somewliat  subject  to 
mildew  in  some  localities,  and  this  may  account  for  its 
limited  cultivation,  although  introduced  more  than 
thirty  years  ago. 

Antoinette  (T.  B.  Miner). — Bunch  medium  to 
large ;  compact,  shouldered.  Berries  large,  skin  thin, 
very  tender,  greenish-white  at  first,  changing  to  yellow- 
ish-white when  fully  ripe.  Pulp  tender,  very  sweet  and 
rich.  A  seedling  of  Concord,  with  all  the  characteristics 


244  THE  GKAPE  CTJLTURIST. 

of  its  parent  in  the  way  of  leaf  and  vine,  but  with  light- 
colored  and  much  sweeter  and  richer  fruit ;  ripening  two 
weeks  earlier  than  Concord.  During  the  twenty  years 
this  variety  has  been  growing  in  my  grounds  it  has  never 
suffered  from  disease,  and  while  I  consider  it  one  of  the 
best  white  grapes  in  cultivation  for  home  use,  it  will 
scarcely  answer  for  market,  owing  to  the  tender  skin 
and  the  dropping  of  the  berries  from  the  bunch  when 
handled  after  they  are  fully  ripe. 

Augusta  (T.  B.  Miner). — Bunch  medium,  com- 
pact, sometimes  shouldered.  Berries  medium  to  large ; 
skin  thin,  greenish-white,  becoming  decidedly  yellow  and 
semi-transparent  when  fully  ripe.  Pulp  tender,  sweet 
and  rich.  Very  early,  or  with  the  Delaware.  Of  the 
same  origin  and  parentage  as  the  Antoinette,  but  not  as 
strong  and  vigorous.  A  beautiful  grape  for  the  ama- 
teur or  the  home  garden  of  the  vineyardist. 

Bacchus  (/.  H.  Ricketts). — Bunch  medium,  very 
compact,  shouldered.  Berries  small  or  medium  ;  black, 
pulp  tender,  too  acid  to  be  pleasant.  A  seedling  of  the 
old  Clinton,  and,  like  its  parent,  very  hardy  and  pro- 
ductive. Recommended  only  as  a  wine  grape  for  North- 
ern localities. 

Barry  (Rogers'  Hybrid,  43). — Bunch  large,  and 
short,  not  generally  shouldered.  Berries  large  to  very 
large ;  skin  moderately  thin,  black,  with  little  bloom ; 
pulp  tender,  sweet  and  sprightly  when  fully  ripe ;  vine 
hardy,  vigorous  and  productive ;  season  medium,  or 
ripening  with  the  Concord.  One  of  the  best  of  Rogers' 
Hybrids,  and  perhaps  the  least  liable  to  be  attacked  by 
mildew  and  black  rot. 

Brighton  (Jacob  Moore). — Bunch  large,  broad,  but 
short,  sometimes  double-shouldered,  or  clustered.  Ber- 
ries medium  to  large,  reddish -purple ;  skin  thin,  with 
light  bloom ;  pulp  tender,  and  more  like  the  flesh  of  the 
foreign  varieties  than  of  our  native  grapes.  In  flavor  it 


DESCRIPTION"   OF  VARIETIES.  245 

is  sprightly  and  very  pleasant,  and  an  excellent  grape. 
Vine  vigorous,  and  usually  productive  when  not  attacked 
by  disease.  A  hybrid  between  the  Concord  and  Diana 
Hamburg.  Very  highly  recommended  by  those  who 
have  been  successful  in  its  cultivation,  and  its  range  will 
probably  be  largely  increased  as  vineyardists  become 
more  familiar  with  the  remedies  employed  for  preventing 
diseases. 

Catawba. — Bunch  large,  loose  shouldered.  Ber- 
ries medium  to  large;  skin  thin,  dark  red,  with  thin 
bloom ;  pulp  tender  when  fully  ripe,  with  a  juicy,  rich 
and  sprightly  flavor.  This  old  favorite  has  held  its  own 
against  all  competitors  for  three-quarters  of  a  century, 
and  during  the  closing  days  of  the  year  it  is  about  the 
only  native  dessert  grape  to  be  found  in  our  markets. 
It  ripens  rather  late  for  some  of  our  Northern  States, 
and  in  some  localities  is  subject  to  mildew  and  black  rot, 
but  now  that  it  is  known  that  these  diseases  are  not 
incurable,  the  old  Catawba  may  take  a  new  lease  of  life, 
and  long  remain  a  standard  wine  and  table  grape. 

Champion. — Origin  unknown.  Bunch  medium, 
compact.  Berries  large,  black ;  pulp  rather  tough ; 
sweet,  with  a  decided  foxy  flavor.  Eesembles  Hartford 
Prolific,  but  it  is  claimed  that  the  berries  adhere  more 
firmly  to  the  stem.  Very  hardy  and  prolific,  but  mainly 
recommended  on  account  of  earliness. 

Concord  (K  W.  Bull). — Bunch  compact,  large 
shouldered.  Berries  large,  round,  black,  thickly  cov- 
ered with  a  beautiful  blue  bloom.  Skin  thin,  often  very 
thin.  Flesh  moderately  juicy,  sweet,  rather  buttery. 
Pulp  quite  tender  when  fully  ripe ;  sometimes  quite  acid 
at  the  center,  with  considerable  of  the  foxy  flavor.  Vine 
very  hardy  and  vigorous.  Leaves  very  thick  and  endur- 
ing; dark  green  above,  rusty  beneath.  Ripens  from 
lOfch  to  20th  of  September. 

Among  all  the  varieties  that  have  been  thoroughly 
tested,  the  Concord  is,  without  doubt,  the  most  profit- 


246  THE    GRAPE    CULTURIST. 

able  for  market.  It 'will  grow  and  produce  abundant 
crops  in  situations  and  upon  soils  where  some  of  the  bet- 
ter flavored  and  more  delicate  varieties  would  utterly 
fail.  Although  its  fruit  cannot  be  called  the  best  in 
quality,  still  it  seems  to  suit  the  masses ;  or  at  least  they 
prefer  an  abundance,  if  it  is  not  quite  so  delicate,  to  a 
small  supply  of  something  that  is  really  superb. 

It  is  a  really  fine  native  grape,  and  has  steadily 
grown  in  favor  ever  since  its  introduction,  and  probably 
there  are  more  vines  of  it  being  planted  at  the  present 
time  than  of  any  other  variety.  It  is  very  hardy,  of 
vigorous  growth,  and  very  productive.  Its  beautiful 
appearance  makes  it  one  of  the  most  attractive  market 
grapes,  and  for  this  purpose  there  is,  perhaps,  no  variety 
that  excels  it. 

The  preceding  paragraphs  contain  my  description 
and  opinion  of  this  popular  grape,  as  published  thirty 
vears  ago,  and  I  cannot  now  see  any  good  reason  for 
making  any  change;  for  the  planting  of  the  vines  is 
still  going  on,  although  the  few  hundreds  of  pounds 
which  found  their  way  to  market  in  1864  are  now  repre- 
sented by  almost,  if  not  quite,  as  many  tons. 

Cottage  (K  W.  Bull).— A  seedling  of  the  Concord, 
resembling  its  parent,  the  individual  berries  being  a 
little  larger.  The  skin  is  thicker  and  the  pulp  some- 
what tougher,  and  while  I  do  not  think  it  as  good  as  the 
Concord,  others  may  not  agree  with  me,  hence  its  place 
in  this  list. 

Dana  (Francis  Dana). — Bunch  medium,  compact, 
shouldered,  peduncle  of  a  reddish  color.  Berries  large, 
red,  with  considerable  bloom;  pulp  quite  tender  and 
sweet.  Eipens  with  Concord,  or  from  the  first  to  mid- 
dle of  October.  Vine  vigorous,  hardy  and  productive. 

Delaware. — Origin  unknown,  but  first  brought  to 
notice  by  Mr.  A.  Thompson,  of  Delaware,  Ohio,  who 
procured  it  of  Mr.  Paul  H.  Provost,  of  Hunterdon  Co., 


DESCRIPTION   OF   VARIETIES.  247 

N.  J.  Bunch  medium,  very  compact,  and  generally 
shouldered.  Berries  medium ;  skin  thin,  of  a  beautiful 
dark  red  color  when  fully  ripe,  and  with  only  a  slight 
white  bloom;  pulp  tender  and  juicy,  sweet,  with  a 
sprightly,  vinous  flavor.  This  variety  has  become  a 
standard  of  excellence  among  our  native  grapes.  The 
vine  is  very  hardy,  young  wood  exceedingly  hard  when 
mature.  A  sturdy  grower,  but  not  as  rank  as  some 
other  native  varieties.  It  is  probably  a  seedling  of  the 
Catawba,  as  it  possesses  many  of  the  characteristics  of 
that  old  favorite,  but  ripening  a  month  earlier,  and 
while  the  fruit  is  much  superior  in  quality  to  that  of  its 
supposed  parent,  the  vine  is  less  vigorous,  consequently 
requires  a  much  richer  soil  and  more  care  in  cultivation. 

Diamond  (Jacob  Moore). — A  cross  between  the 
Concord  and  lona.  Bunch  large,  slightly  shouldered. 
Berries  large;  skin  thin,  but  firm,  greenish-white  at 
first,  but  becoming  yellowish  with  full  maturity.  Pulp 
tender,  sweet,  and  rich  flavored.  The  vine  is  vigorous, 
healthy,  hardy  and  productive.  While  this  is  a  compar- 
atively new  variety,  it  has  been  so  widely  disseminated, 
and  its  merits  so  well  known,  that  I  think  it  safe  to 
place  it  among  the  standard  varieties. 

Diana. — A  seedling  of  Catawba,  raised  by  Mrs.  Diana 
Crehore,  of  Boston,  and  introduced  to  public  notice 
about  thirty-five  years  ago.  There  is  probably  no  one 
variety  of  grape  in  cultivation  in  regard  to  which  there 
is  a  greater  diversity  of  opinion,  and  its  variableness 
fully  warrants  all  that  is  said  about  it.  In  one  section 
it  is  really  excellent,  while  in  another,  perhaps  near  by, 
it  is  entirely  worthless ;  and  the  same  difference  is  often 
observable  in  the  same  garden,  and  from  no  apparent 
cause.  It  is  one  of  the  best  keeping  grapes  that  we 
have,  owing,  in  a  great  measure,  to  its  thick  skin. 

Bunches  medium  to  large,  compact,  not  generally 
shouldered.  Berries  medium,  sometimes  quite  large, 


248  THE   GRAPE  CULTUKIST. 

round,  often  ripen  very  unevenly.  Skin  thick,  pale  red, 
covered  with  a  thin  bloom.  Flesh  tender,  with  some 
pulp,  juicy,  rich,  sweet  and  vinous ;  but  in  some  seasons 
and  localities  it  possesses  a  peculiar  musky  flavor  that  is, 
to  many  persons,  quite  offensive.  After  the  fruit  has 
been  gathered  a  few  days  this  peculiar  flavor,  in  a  meas- 
ure, disappears.  Vine  vigorous  and  moderately  hardy, 
requiring  slight  protection  in  our  Northern  Border 
States.  Ripens  the  last  of  September  in  the  latitude  of 
New  York  City. 

Duchess  (A.  J.  Caywood}. — Bunch  large,  shoul- 
dered. Berries  medium ;  skin  thin  but  firm,  greenish- 
white  ;  pulp  tender,  juicy  and  sweet.  Vine  hardy  and 
prolific,  but  much  subject  to  disease,  except  in  a  few 
favorable  localities. 

Eaton  (Calvin  Eaton). — A  seedling  of  Concord. 
Bunch  large,  sometimes  double  shouldered.  Berries 
extra  large,  round ;  skin  thick,  black,  covered  with  a 
delicate  bloom,  but  not  quite  as  abundant  as  on  the  ber- 
ries of  its  parent.  Pulp  rather  firm,  but  juicy;  neither 
sweet  nor  rich,  and,  to  my  taste,  very  much  inferior  to 
the  Concord.  Vine  healthy  and  hardy ;  a  good  show 
fruit,  but  not  up  to  the  standard  of  excellence  for  a  des- 
sert grape. 

Empire  State  (J".  H.  Ricketts). — A  cross  between 
Hartford  Prolific  and  Clinton.  Bunch  rather  long, 
large,  and  usually  shouldered.  Berries  medium,  skin 
thick,  but  tender  ;  greenish-white  tinged  with  yellow  at 
maturity ;  very  little  bloom ;  pulp  tender,  sweet,  rich 
and  sprightly.  Vine  hardy,  healthy,  and  productive*,  as 
might  be  expected  from  such  parents.  This  is  one  of 
the  very  best  of  Mr.  Eicketts'  seedlings  for  general  culti- 
vation, probably  because  it  is  of  pure  native  parentage. 

Goethe  (Rogers'  No.  1). — Bunch  large,  shouldered. 
Berries  large  and  of  a  decided  oval  form.  Skin  thick, 
pale  red,  or  flesh  color,  when  fully  matured  ;  pulp  tough, 


DESCRIPTION   OF  VARIETIES.  249 

with  a  little  rich  juice,  having  a  rank,  foxy  flavor.  Vine 
a  coarse,  rampant  grower,  and  very  productive.  It  is 
with  much  reluctance  that  I  have  admitted  this  grape 
here,  because,  after  twenty-five  years'  experience  with  it, 
I  must  say  it  has  scarcely  a  redeeming  quality  beyond 
that  of  size  and  peculiar  shape  of  berries.  But  it  is 
extensively  propagated  and  admired,  and  this  might  lead 
my  readers  to  look  for  it  among  the  recommended 
varieties. 

Green  Mountain,  or  Winchell. — Origin  unknown, 
but  said  to  have  been  found  in  a  garden  in  Vermont. 
Bunch  medium,  shouldered.  Berries  medium,  skin 
greenish-white,  thin ;  pulp  tender,  sweet  and  excellent. 
Vine  very  hardy  and  productive.  This  grape  is  highly 
recommended  for  its  early  ripening  and  good  quality. 
Its  value  for  general  cultivation  for  market  has  not,  as 
yet,  been  determined. 

Hartford  Prolific. — A  very  old  variety,  supposed 
to  have  been  raised  by  a  Mr.  Steel,  of  Hartford,  Conn. 
Bunch  medium  to  large,  shouldered,  and  compact.  Ber- 
ries large ;  skin  rather  thick,  black,  with  very  little 
bloom.  Pulp  somewhat  tough,  but  sweet,  and  with  a 
decided  foxy  flavor.  Vine  hardy  and  very  productive. 
Valuable  for  its  earliness,  ripening  two  weeks  in  advance 
of  Concord.  It  is  not  a  good  market  grape,  on  account 
of  the  tendency  of  the  berries  to  drop  from  the  bunch. 

Hayes  (Jno.  B.  Moore). — Bunch  medium  to  large, 
compact,  shoulders  very  small,  or  none.  Berries  medi- 
um ;  skin  tender,  greenish-white,  with  an  amber  shade 
when  fully  matured ;  pulp  tender  and  juicy,  and  of  ex- 
cellent flavor.  Vine  vigorous  and  hardy,  with  large, 
healthy  foliage.  Ripens  a  little  in  advance  of  the 
Concord. 

Ida  (T.  B.  Miner). — Seedling  of  Concord.  Bunch 
large,  heavily  shouldered.  Berries  as  large  as  those  of 
its  parent;  skin  moderately  tough,  deep  green,  fading 


250  THE    GBAPE   CULTURTST. 

to  pale  green  when  dead  ripe ;  skin  moderately  firm  ; 
pulp  tender  and  juicy,  sweet  and  rich.  Vine  almost 
identical  with  the  Concord,  hardy  and  productive.  The 
color  is  against  this  most  excellent  grape,  which  I  re- 
ceived from  the  late  Mr.  Miner  in  1877,  and  haye  had 
in  continuous  cultivation  ever  since.  It  is  to  be  feared, 
however,  that  of  the  dozen  or  more  excellent  varieties 
raised  and  distributed  by  Mr.  Miner,  few  can  now  be 
identified  with  any  degree  of  certainty.  Some  have,  no 
doubt,  reappeared  under  new  names,  with  origin  falsely 
claimed  or  unknown. 

lona  (Dr.  C.  W.  Grant). — A  seedling  of  Catawba, 
raised  at  lona  Island,  about  thirty-five  years  ago,  and  a 
superior  fruit,  but  the  leaves  are  rather  thin  and  very 
likely  to  be  attacked  by  mildew.  Bunches  large,  shoul- 
dered, compact.  Berries  large,  round,  semi-transparent 
when  they  begin  to  ripen,  but  growing  opaque  as  the 
color  deepens.  Skin  thin,  pale  red,  with  small  deep  red 
veins  at  first,  changing  to  dark  red  when  fully  ripe. 
Flesh  tender,  with  very  little  pulp  at  the  center.  Sweet, 
brisk  flavor,  excellent,  but  not  quite  equal  to  Delaware. 
Ripens  from  10th  to  20th  of  September. 

Isabella. — Supposed  to  have  been  brought  from 
South  Carolina  to  New  York  by  Mrs.  Isabella  Gibbs, 
early  in  the  present  century.  It  has  probably  been  dis- 
seminated under  more  names  than  any  other  native  vari- 
ety in  cultivation.  Bunch  large,  compact,  shouldered. 
Berries  medium  to  large,  slightly  oval;  skin  thin,  black, 
with  light  bloom;  pulp  tender  and  sweet;  excellent 
quality  when  perfectly  and  well  ripened.  Of  late  years 
the  vine  has  been  subject  to  disease,  and  for  this  reason 
few  are  now  planted,  the  Concord  having  almost  entirely 
superseded  this  old  favorite. 

Jefferson  (J.  H.  Ricketts). — Said  to  be  a  cross 
between  the  Concord  and  lona.  Bunch  large,  often 
double  shouldered.  Berries  large,  of  a  red  color;  skin 


DESCRIPTION    OF   VARIETIES.  251 

moderately  thin ;  pulp  tender,  sweet  and  rich.  Vine 
hardy,  healthy  and  prolific.  Ripens  with  the  lona,  or  a 
little  earlier  than  Concord.  A  very  promising  variety, 
Dut  not,  as  yet,  very  widely  disseminated  nor  extensively 
cultivated. 

Jessica. — Originated  with  D.  W.  Beadle,  Canada. 
A  small  white  grape,  which  has  been  widely  dissemi- 
nated, and  highly  recommended  for  its  earliness  and 
productiveness,  but  with  me  it  is  utterly  worthless,  the 
vine  being  a  feeble  grower,  and  both  fruit  and  leaves  are 
so  subject  to  mildew  that  I  do  not  consider  it  worth 
cultivating. 

Lady  (C.  W.  Campbell). — A  seedling  of  Concord. 
Bunch  medium,  compact,  rarely  shouldered.  Berries 
large,  skin  thin  and  brittle,  greenish-white;  pulp  ten- 
der and  sweet,  but  not  very  rich.  Ripens  early,  or  a 
week  or  more  before  the  Concord.  Vine  a  moderate 
grower,  hardy,  but  not  very  productive. 

Lady  Washington  (Hyb.)  (/.  H.  Riclcetts).—A. 
hybrid  between  Concord  and  Allen's  Hybrid.  The  orig- 
inator was  probably  awarded  more  prizes  for  this  variety 
than  for  all  the  many  he  produced,  and  yet  it  does  not 
seem  to  have  become  at  all  popular  with  vineyardists 
anywhere.  Bunch  large,  compact,  usually  double  shoul- 
dered. Berries  large,  yellowish-green,  with  thin  bloom. 
Flesh  tender,  sweet  and  delicious.  Vine  vigorous  and 
productive  in  the  originator's  grounds,  but  rarely  seen  in 
this  condition  elsewhere.  Ripens  late,  under  the  most 
favorable  conditions,  and  may  prove  more  valuable  South 
than  in  the  North. 

Martha. — A  well  known  variety  raised  some  thirty 
years  ago,  by  Judge  Samuel  Miller,  now  of  Bluffton, 
Mo.  Bunch  medium,  compact,  uniformly  shouldered. 
Berries  medium,  skin  rather  thick,  pulp  sweet,  juicy, 
with  a  slightly  foxy  odor,  but  not  offensive.  Vine  very 
hardy,  healthy,  and  exceedingly  productive.  A  stand- 
ard variety,  ripening  with  or  a  little  before  the  Concord. 


252  THE   GKAPE   CULTUEIST. 

Moore's  Early  (Jno.  B.  Moore). — Bunch  large 
and  compact.  Berries  large,  skin  thick;  black,  with 
heavy  bloom  ;  pulp  tender  and  juicy,  but  not  very  sweet 
nor  rich.  Vine  hardy  and  prolific.  Eecommended 
mainly  on  account  of  its  earliness,  as  it  ripens  about  two 
weeks  before  the  Concord. 

Moyer. — Originated  in  Canada,  and  in  the  grounds 
of  Mr.  Allen  Moyer.  It  is  probably  a  seedling  of  the 
Delaware,  which  it  resembles  in  both  color  and  earliness. 
Bunch  small,  or  very  small,  sometimes  shouldered. 
Berry  small,  skin  thin,  red ;  pulp  tender,  and  exceed- 
ingly sweet  and  delicious ;  but,  unfortunately,  there  is 
little  of  it,  for  the  berries  are  very  small,  with  large 
seeds.  A  very  fine  early  grape,  but  too  small  to  ever 
become  popular. 

Niagara. — Introduced  by  Hoag  &  Clark,  of  Lock- 
port,  "N.  Y.  It  is,  undoubtedly,  a  pure  native  variety  of 
the  Labrusca,  or  fox  grape  species.  Disseminated  and 
propagated  by  a  syndicate,  each  vine  sold  under  seal, 
with  some  other  rather  unusual  schemes  for  attracting 
public  attention.  Bunch  large  to  very  large,  shouldered. 
Berries  large ;  skin  tough,  green,  retaining  this  color, 
fading  but  little  when  fully  mature.  Pulp  firm  and 
rather  tough ;  juice  moderately  sweet  and  good,  but 
with  considerable  of  the  native  fox  grape  odor.  Ripens 
with  Concord.  Vine  healthy,  hardy,  and  very  produc- 
tive. In  some  localities  it  is  said  to  be  affected  with 
mildew,  and  the  fruit  with  rot,  but  the  same  may  be 
said  of  all  the  varieties  of  this  species.  The  Niagara  is, 
without  doubt,  a  valuable  grape  for  market ;  it  is  large 
and  handsome,  and  firm  enough  to  bear  transportation 
without  injury  to  its  appearance,  and  good  enough  to 
satisfy  those  who  are  not  accustomed  to  anything  better 
in  the  way  of  a  light-colored  grape. 

Pocklington  (Jas.  Pocklingtori). — A  seedling  of 
Concord.  Bunch  large  and  very  compact,  slightly 


DESCRIPTION  OF   VARIETIES. 

shouldered.  Berries  large  to  very  large  ;  skin  pale  green, 
becoming  yellowish-green  at  maturity,  with  thin  white 
bloom.  Pulp  moderately  tough,  sweet,  with  consider- 
able f oxiness  in  both  odor  and  taste.  It  is  not  a  first- 
rate  grape,  but  moderately  good.  Vine  hardy,  foliage 
large  and  healthy.  Eipening  with,  or  a  little  before,  the 
Concord.  A  handsome  grape,  which  seems  to  be  gain- 
ing friends  with  age. 

Salem  (Rogers9  No.  53). — Bunch  medium  to  large, 
loose,  usually  shouldered.  Berries  large,  round,  skin 
thick  and  tough,  dark  red ;  pulp  tough,  with  some  sweet 
and  sprightly  juice.  A  few  years  ago  this  variety  was 
planted  quite  extensively  in  some  of  the  vineyards  along 
the  southern  shore  of  Lake  Erie,  for  wine  making,  as 
well  as  market,  but  I  am  inclined  to  think  its  popularity 
is  on  the  wane,  for  I  have  rarely  seen  it  in  market  of 
late  years. 

Walter  (A.  J.  Cay  wood). — A  cross  between  Dela- 
ware and  lona.  Bunch  medium,  compact,  shouldered. 
Berries  medium,  light  red  ;  pulp  tender,  sweet,  excellent 
quality.  A  very  handsome  and  excellent  grape,  but  the 
vine  is  feeble,  and  subject  to  mildew.  It  is  not  an  im- 
provement upon  either  of  its  parents,  although  distinct, 
and  in  some  localities  may  be  considered  of  more  value 
for  wine  than  as  a  dessert  grape. 

Wilder  (Rogers'  No.  4). — Bunch  very,  large,  com- 
pact, shouldered.  Berry  large,  round ;  skin  thin,  black, 
liable  to  crack ;  pulp  tender,  with  a  sprightly  flavor. 
Eipens  with  Concord,  and  is  a  good  keeper.  Vine  very 
vigorous  and  hardy,  and,  unless  close  pruned,  is  likely 
to  over-bear  and  the  bunches  and  berries  fail  to  reach 
their  normal  size.  A  good  market  grape. 

Winchell. — See  Green  Mountain. 

Worden  (S.  Warden). — Seedling  of  Concord. 
Bunch  large,  compact,  not  uniformly  shouldered.  Berry 
large  to  very  large ;  skin  thin,  black,  with  bloom  ;  pulp 


254  THE   GKAPE   CULTURIST. 

tender,  moderately  sweet,  very  much  like  its  parent  in 
flavor  and  quality.  Ripens  five  to  ten  days  earlier  than 
Concord.  Vine  hardy,  healthy  and  productive,  and 
where  best  known  it  is  considered  equal,  if  not  superior, 
to  the  Concord  as  a  shipping  grape. 

Wyoming  Red  (Dr.  J.  S.  Parker). —Bunch 
small,  compact.  Berries  medium ;  skin  bright,  coppery 
red,  thick  and  tough  ;  pulp  sweet,  with  considerable  fox- 
iness,  but  agreeable  to  most  palates.  Very  early,  and 
the  vine  so  hardy,  healthy  and  prolific,  that  this  grape 
may  be  recommended  for  all  localities  where  the  better 
varieties  fail. 


CHAPTER  XXII. 

NEW,    OB   LITTLE   KNOWN   VARIETIES. 

Some  of  the  following  named  varieties  may  have 
been  known  and  cultivated  in  circumscribed  localities, 
such  as  the  grounds  of  the  originator,  and  those  of  his 
neighbors,  for  a  number  of  years,  but  this  kind  of  culti- 
vation and  dissemination  does  not  afford  the  general 
public  an  opportunity  of  testing  and  becoming  ac- 
quainted with  their  merits.  In  many  instances  those 
who  produce  new  varieties  hold  on  to  the  stock  for  years, 
merely  exhibiting  the  fruit  at  fairs  and  meetings  of 
pomological  and  kindred  societies  for  the  purpose  of  ob- 
taining prizes  and  a  certain  amount  of  free  advertising 
of  the  vines,  which  they  expect  to  offer  for  sale  at  some 
future  time.  This  is  all  right,  in  a  business  point  of 
view ;  at  least,  in  the  opinion  of  those  who  practice  it ; 
but  it  is  sometimes  rather  discouraging  to  those  who  are 
seeking  only  for  facts  to  be  placed  on  record,  where 
others,  seeking  information  of  this  kind,  may  readily 
find  it. 


LITTLE   KNOWN   VARIETIES.  255 

A  large  number  of  hybrids  and  cross-bred  varieties 
raised  by  Mr.  T.  V.  Munson,  Denison,  Tex.,  are  named 
in  this  list ;  and  while  it  may  be  said  in  a  general  way 
that  many  of  them  promise  well,  still  their  value,  for 
either  local  or  general  cultivation,  is  yet  to  be  deter- 
mined. The  names  of  several  other  prominent  hybrid- 
izers and  originators  of  new  varieties  are  also  given,  with 
brief  descriptions  of  some  of  their  productions,  but  if 
experience  counts  for  anything  in  grape  culture  we  can- 
not suppose,  nor  is  it  at  all  likely,  that  more  than  one 
out  of  every  ten  of  the  one  hundred  and  sixty  varieties 
named  in  the  following  list  will  ever  become  extensively 
cultivated  or  known  in  the  markets  of  our  larger  cities. 
There  certainly  cannot  be  any  good  reason  (beyond  that 
of  pleasing  the  originator)  for  describing  and  recording 
the  names  of  several  dozen  white  seedlings  of  Concord 
and  Delaware,  and  an  equal  or  greater  number  of  reds 
and  blacks  of  the  same  or  similar  parentage,  when  it 
would  puzzle  the  most  skillful  expert  to  select,  by  the 
fruit  alone,  a  half  dozen  really  distinct  varieties  from 
among  them.  If  all  are  equally  good  and  valuable,  we 
gain  nothing  by  multiplying  names,  beyond  nourishing 
our  vanity  and  increasing  the  size  of  nurserymen's 
catalogues. 

Alice  (Hyb.).—  W.  H.  Lightfoot,  Springfield,  111. 
A  seedling  of  Lady  Washington,  and  quite  similar  to 
its  parent. 

Alma  (Hyb.). — J.  H.  Ricketts.  Black,  early. 
Sparingly  cultivated. 

Alphonso. — T.  Huber,  Illinois  City,  111.  A  white 
grape,  and  said  to  be  a  seedling  of  Concord. 

Amber. — J.  Rommel,  Morrison,  Mo.  A  large 
amber-colored  grape,  with  oval-shaped  berries. 

Amber  Queen. — N.  B.  White,  Norwood,  Mass. 
Large,  dark  amber  color,  and  said  to  ripen  early. 

America  (Hyb.). — T.  V.  Munson.  Large,  black, 
a  cross  between  Post  Oak  and  Rupestris. 


256  THE   GKAPE    CULTUBIST. 

Annie  M. — A  chance  seedling  from  Tennessee, 
With  greenish-white  fruit,  and  claimed  to  be  earlier  than 
Concord. 

August  Giant  (Hyb.).— N.  B.  White,  Norwood, 
Mass.  Supposed  to  be  a  hybrid  between  Marion  and 
Black  Hamburg.  Fruit  large  and  of  a  purplish  color. 
It  is  doubtful  if  a  variety  of  such  a  parentage  will  prove 
to  be  of  any  value  for  open-air  cultivation. 

Bailey  (Hyb.). — Munson.  Fruit  black,  claimed 
to  be  valuable  as  a  wine  grape. 

Beacon  (Hyb.). — Munson.  Berries  large,  and  of 
a  red  color. 

Bay  State. — Origin  unknown,  or  kept  secret;  said 
to  be  a  hybrid.  Berries  red. 

Beagle  (Hyb.). — Munson.  Bunch  and  berry 
small,  or  medium  ;  skin  thick  and  black. 

Berckmans  (Hyb.). — Raised  by  the  late  Dr.  A.  P. 
Wylie,  Chester,  S.  C.  Described  as  of  medium  size,  and 
of  a  pale  red  color.  Dr.  Wylie  raised  a  large  number  of 
seedlings,  mainly  from  foreign  varieties,  several  of  which 
I  tested  a  few  years  ago,  but  found  none  worth  culti- 
vating here,  although  they  may  have  proved  valuable  in 
the  South. 

Berlin. — Raised  by  Geo.  Hosford,  Ionia,  Mich.  A 
seedling  of  Concord,  with  large  greenish-white  berries, 
ripening  about  the  same  time  as  its  parent. 

Bertha. — A  small  white  grape  from  Illinois,  of 
which  little  is  known. 

Bertrand. ^-Originated  with  Hon.  J.  B.  Jones, 
Henderson,  Ga.  A  bluish-black  grape  of  medium  size, 
very  sweet,  with  a  kind  of  elderberry  flavor.  Probably 
valuable  for  the  South. 

Big  Extra  (Hyb.). — Munson.  Large,  black,  with 
tender  red  pulp. 

Big  Hope. — Same  origin  as  the  last,  but  berries 
only  of  medium  size. 


LITTLE  KKOWK  VARIETIES.  257 

Black  Delaware. — Jacob  Rommel,  Missouri. 
Said  to  be  similar  to  its  parent,  except  in  color. 

Black  Herbemont. — Munson.  Seedling  of  the 
old  Herbemont,  and  much  like  it. 

Boadicea  (Hyb.). — Raised  by  C.  J.  Copeley,  Sta- 
pleton,  N".  Y.,  and  claimed  to  be  a  hybrid  between  Black 
Hamburg  and  Telegraph.  It  has  a  decidedly  poor 
parentage  for  a  hardy  grape. 

Boulevard.— Raised  by  A.  Koeth,  of  Charlotte, 
N.  Y.  From  Concord,  crossed  with  Brighton.  Fruit 
greenish-white ;  ripens  early. 

Brilliant  (Hyb.). — Munson.  A  cross  between 
Lindley  and  Delaware.  A  large,  handsome,  coppery- red 
grape  of  excellent  quality,  ripening  with  the  Delaware. 
Believed  to  be  one  of  the  best  of  the  Munson  hybrids. 

Bundy. — Originated  with  David  Bundy,  Colerain, 
0.  A  black  variety ;  seedling  of  the  Concord,  but  ripens 
much  earlier  than  its  parent. 

Campbell  (Hyb.). — Munson.  A  seedling  of  Tri- 
umph. Bunches  large,  but  berries  only  medium,  and  of 
a  golden  yellow  color.  Ripening  before  the  Delaware. 

CanonicuS' — Raised  by  D.  S.  Marvin,  Watertown, 
N.  Y.  A  small  pale  green  variety,  ripening  with  the 
Concord. 

Carman  (Hyb.). — Munson.  A  hybrid  between  a 
variety  of  the  wild  Post  Oak  grape  of  Texas  and  the 
Herbemont.  The  berries  are  described  as  large,  dark 
purple,  almost  black.  In  quality  similar  to  Herbemont. 
Late  in  ripening. 

Cayuga. — D.  S.  Marvin.  A  black  variety  resem- 
bling the  Isabella,  but  it  is  claimed  to  be  earlier  and  of 
better  quality. 

Centennial. — Same  origin  as  the  above,  but  of  a 
yellowish-green  color  at  first,  becoming  amber  when 
fully  mature.  Late,  or  with  Concord. 

Chautauqua. — Found  in  the  vineyard  of  T.  H. 
17 


258  THE   GKAPE   CULTURIST. 

Barhite,  Portland,  N.  Y.  Described  as  almost  identical 
with  Concord,  ripening  at  the  same  time,  but  the  berries 
a  little  larger. 

Clover  Street,  Black  (Hyb.). — Jacob  Moore. 
Hybrid  between  Diana,  and  Black  Hamburg.  Berries 
large  and  black,  and  of  fine  quality,  but  vine  tender  and 
unhealthy. 

Clover  Street,  Red. — Same  origin  as  the  last,  but 
fruit  red. 

Cole  rain. — D.  Bundy.  A  seedling  of  Concord, 
but  of  a  greenish-white  color,  of  excellent  quality,  and 
ripening  early,  which  seems  to  be  true  with  nearly  all  of 
the  white  or  light  colored  seedlings  of  the  Concord. 

Colorado. — Supposed  to  have  been  raised  at  Canon 
City,  Col.,  but  nothing  positive  is  known  of  its  origin  or 
merits.  Probably  some  old  variety  under  a  new  name. 

Concord  Chasselas  (Hyb.). — Geo.  W.  Campbell, 
Delaware,  0.  A  hybrid  between  Concord  and  Chasselas. 
A  light  amber-colored  fruit,  ripening  with  Concord.  A 
very  poor  parentage  for  a  grape  to  be  grown  in  the  open 
air  in  our  Northern  States. 

Concord  Muscat  (Hyb.). — Campbell.  Of  doubt- 
ful value. 

Concordia. — Dr.  J.  Stayman.  A  small  black 
grape,  a  seedling  of  Delaware,  but  ripens  much  later. 

Covert. — Origin  unknown,  but  introduced  by  N.  B. 
Covert,  Ann  Arbor,  Mich.  A  greenish- white  grape, 
ripening  with  Concord. 

Delawba. — A  cross  between  the  Catawba  and  Del- 
aware, raised  by  Dr.  L.  C.  Chisholm,  Springfield,  Tenn. 
Said  to  be  intermediate  between  its  two  parents  in  size, 
flavor  and  period  of  ripening. 

D'Elboux  (Hyb.).— Raised  by  C.  J.  Copeley, 
by  crossing  Telegraph  with  Black  Hamburg.  A  large 
black  grape,  ripening  with  Hartford  Prolific. 

Delgoethe  (Hyb.). — Munson.  Delaware  crossed 
with  Goethe. 


LITTLE   KNOWN   VARIETIES.  259 

Delmar  (Hyb.). — Munson.    Delaware  and  Martha. 

Denison. — Munson.     Seedling  of  Moore's  Early. 

Detroit.  —  T.  N.  Chase,  Detroit,  Mich.  Very 
much  like  Catawba. 

Diana  Hamburg  (Hyb.). — Jacob  Moore.  This 
can  scarcely  be  called  a  new  grape,  but  it  is  one  that 
does  not  appear  to  have  made  many  friends  away  from 
home.  Too  late  in  ripening,  and  the  vine  is  tender  and 
subject  to  mildew. 

Dinkel. — Munson.  Seedling  of  Catawba,  and, 
from  the  description,  is  not  as  good  as  its  parent. 

Dr.  Collier  (Hyb>). — Munson.  Post  Oak  crossed 
with  Lindley.  Large,  dark  red. 

Dr.  Hexamer  (Hyb.). — Munson.  Post  Oak  and 
Triumph.  Large,  black. 

Dr.  Wiley. — Origin  unknown.  Named  by  Judge 
Samuel  Miller.  Large,  dark  red.  Vine  healthy  and 
hardy. 

Early  Dawn  (Hyb.).— Raised  by  Dr.  Wm.  A.  M. 
Culbert,  Newburgh,  N.  Y.  A  black  grape,  and  said  to 
be  a  hybrid  between  Black  Hamburg  and  Isabella.  It  is 
barely  possible,  but  scarcely  probable,  that  a  valuable 
variety  could  be  produced  from  such  parents. 

Early  Ohio. — A  chance  seedling  found  in  the 
grounds  of  N.  A.  Hunt,  Euclid,  0.  A  medium-sized 
black  grape,  highly  extolled  by  those  who  are  interested 
in  selling  the  vines. 

Eclipse. — Another  chance  seedling,  parentage  un- 
known. Fruit  greenish- white,  ripens  with  Concord. 

Early  Victor. — Same  origin  as  the  above,  but 
fruit  black;  ripening  early,  or  with  Hartford.  Intro- 
duced by  Mr.  John  Burr,  of  Leavenworth,  Kan. 

Edmiston.  —  Originated  with  D.  G.  Edmiston, 
Adrian,  Mich.  Seedling  of  Concord,  and  resembles  its 
parent,  but  described  as  having  a  tough  skin,  and  ripen- 
ing a  few  days  earlier. 


260  THE  GRAPE  CULTURIST. 

Elaine. — Seedling  of  Salem,  and  introduced  by 
0.  Engle,  of  Paw  Paw,  Mich.  Red,  or  color  of  its 
parent. 

Elvibach  (Hyb.). — Munson.  Medium  black, 
with  heavy  bloom. 

Elvicand  (Hyb.). — Munson.  A  cross  of  the  El- 
vira and  wild  Mustang  grape  of  Texas.  Dark  red. 

Elvira. — A  seedling  of  Taylor,  raised  by  Jacob 
Eommel,  Missouri.  Only  valuable  for  white  wine. 

Exquisite  (Hyb.). — A  seedling  of  Delaware,  raised 
by  Dr.  Stayman,  and  described  as  resembling  its  parent 
in  size,  color  and  quality,  but  vine  very  healthy  and 
vigorous. 

Fena. — Eaised  by  Ludwig  Hencke,  Collinsville,  111. 
Seedling  of  Jewell ;  black. 

Fern  Munson  (Hyb.). — Munson.  Parents,  Post 
Oak  and  Triumph  ;  fruit  red. 

Gilt  Edge. — A  seedling  of  Delaware,  raised  by  Dr. 
Chisholm.  Berry  cream  color,  or  buff ;  said  to  have  a 
banana  flavor. 

Gold  Coin  (Hyb.). — Munson.  Martha  and  Cyn- 
thiana.  Berries  medium,  and  of  a  dull  greenish-yellow 
color. 

Gold  Dust  (Hyb.). — Munson.     Not  yet  described. 

Golden  Berry. — Seedling  of  Hartford.  Raised  by 
Dr.  Culbert,  Newburgh,  N.  Y. 

Golden  Drop.— Raised  by.  C.  G.  Pringle,  East 
Charlotte,  Vt.  Supposed  to  be  a  cross  between  Dela- 
ware and  Adirondac.  Small,  yellowish-white. 

Gov.  Ross  (Hyb.). — Munson.  Large,  yellow, 
conical  berries,  with  tough  skin. 

Guinevra. — Raised  by  C.  Engle,  from  seed  of  the 
Salem.  Very  long,  compact  bunches,  with  whitish-col- 
ored berries.  Said  to  be  better  than  Niagara. 

Harrison. — Raised  by  Isaac  Staples,  Dayton,  0. 
Supposed  to  be  a  seedling  of  Concord.  Fruit  medium 
size,  red,  and  fine  flavor. 


LITTLE   KNOWtf   VARIETIES.  261 

Hattie. — A  chance  seedling  found  by  J.  A.  Put- 
nam, Fredonia,  N.  Y.  Resembles  Concord,  but  claimed 
to  be  better  in  quality,  and  ripening  much  earlier. 

Herman  Jaegar  (Hyb.). — Munson.  Parentage  a 
wild  Texas  grape  and  Herbemont.  Berry  medium,  dark 
purple  ;  may  prove  a  valuable  grape  for  the  South. 

Honey. — C.  Engle.  Seedling  of  Salem.  Bunch 
medium ;  berry  large,  white,  and  very  sweet. 

Hopecon. — D.  S.  Marvin.  Bunch  and  berry  me- 
dium ;  pale  green,  rather  late1  in  ripening. 

Hosford. — Parentage  unknown,  but  raised  by  Geo. 
Hosford,  Ionia,  Mich.  Bunch  and  berry  large;  color 
blue-black,  and  ripens  a  few  days  earlier  than  Concord. 

Husmann  (Hyb.). — Munson.  A  large  black 
grape  of  excellent  quality,  ripening  a  week  later  than 
Concord. 

Ideal. — Raised  by  John  Burr,  from  seed  of  Dela- 
ware. Said  to  resemble  its  parent,  but  larger,  and 
ripens  later,  or  about  with  Concord. 

Jaeger's  Seedlings. — A  large  number  of  varieties 
raised  by  Mr.  Herman  Jaeger,  Neosho,  Mo.,  are  now  on 
trial  in  the  grounds  of  the  originator,  who  deserves 
much  credit  for  thoroughly  testing  before  naming  and 
distributing  them. 

Jewell. — John  Burr.  A  medium  black  grape  of 
excellent  quality,  ripening  early.  Supposed  to  be  a  seed- 
ling of  Delaware.  It  has  an  excellent  reputation  in 
Kansas,  where  it  originated. 

Jumbo. — Origin  unknown,  but  introduced  by  Mrs. 
R.  Rose,  of  Marlboro,  N.  Y.  Bunch  and  berry  very 
large,  blue-black  with  fine  bloom.  Ripens  a  little  earlier 
than  Concord.  A  very  handsome  and  promising  grape. 

Juno  (Hyb.). — Campbell.  A  large  and  handsome 
black  grape,  unfit  for  vineyard  culture,  but  may  succeed 
with  and  please  amateurs,  who  have  sheltered  gardens. 

Keystone. — Origin  unknown,  but  found  in   the 


262  THE   GRAPE   CULTTJRIST. 

grounds  of  John  Kready,  near  Mt.  Joy,  Pa.  Resembles 
Concord,  but  the  skin  being  tougher,  it  is  a  better  keeper. 

Laughlin. — A  chance  seedling  found  by  W.  E. 
Laughlin,  College  Springs,  Iowa.  Bunch  and  berry 
medium ;  color  light  green  or  white.  Probably  another 
albino  from  the  Concord. 

Leader. — Raised  by  B.  F.  Merriman,  and  is  very 
near  or  much  like  Niagara. 

Leavenworth. — Another  white  seedling  from  Con- 
cord, raised  at  Leavenworth,  Kan. 

Lightfoot. — Seedling  of  Niagara,  raised  by  W.  H. 
Lightfoot,  Springfield,  111.  Described  as  similar  to  its 
parent,  with  a  tougher  skin,  and  no  foxiness. 

Linilva. — Munson.  A  cross  between  Lindley  and 
Elvira, 

Linherb  (Hyb.). — Munson.  A  cross,  or  hybrid, 
between  Herbemont  and  Lindley. 

Linmar. — Munson.  A  cross  between  Martha  and 
Lindley. 

Louise. — Roenbeck's.  Large  white,  claimed  to  be 
a  good  table  grape. 

Lucile. — J.  A.  Putnam,  Fredonia,  N.  Y.  Seed- 
ling of  Wyoming  Red,  and  claimed  to  be  larger  and  bet- 
ter than  its  parent. 

Mabel. — A.  J.  Caywood.  Seedling  of  Walter,  but 
black  ;  not  large  enough  to  be  useful  for  market. 

Madeline. — A  large  greenish-white  grape  raised  by 
G.  Henderson,  Eddyville,  N.  Y. 

Magee. — Origin  unknown;  introduced  by  J.  E. 
Anthony,  Watkins,  N.  Y.  Described  as  a  bronzy  green 
with  a  purplish  tinge. 

Magnate. — Seedling  of  Concord,  raised  in  Kansas, 
and,  as  usual  with  such  seedlings,  of  better  quality  than 
its  parent. 

Mansfield. — Pringle.  Seedling  of  Concord,  and, 
from  description,  it  must  be  very  much  like  its  parent 


LITTLE    KNOWN   VARIETIES.  263 

Marguerite  (Hyb.). — Munson.  Post  Oak  and 
Herbemont.  Medium,  and  of  a  purple  color. 

Marguerite. — Another  white  seedling  of  Concord, 
raised  by  T.  Hubert,  Illinois  City,  111. 

Marie  Louise. — Same  origin  as  the  last,  and  sim- 
ilar in  color. 

Mary  Mark.— Dr.  Stayman.  Medium,  red;  sup- 
posed to  be  seedling  of  Delaware. 

Mary's  Favorite.— J.  F.  Coffin,  Westland,  Ind. 
A  small  black  grape  with  bluish  bloom.  Ripens  late. 

Mason. — Raised  by  Mr.  B.  Mason,  Mascoutah,  111. 
White  ;  seedling  of  Concord,  ripening  at  the  same  season. 

Matchless. — Origin  unknown,  but  introduced  by 
John  Burr.  Large,  black,  of  good  quality,  ripening 
early. 

Mathilde. — G.  A.  Ensengberger,  Bloomington,  111. 
Large,  dark  red. 

Mendota. — John  Burr.  Medium,  black;  said  to 
keep  well. 

Michigan. — E.  Engle.  A  seedling  of  Salem,  but 
of  a  greenish- white  color. 

Mills  (Hyb.). — Large,  black,  and  a  hybrid  between 
Black  Hamburg  and  Creveling.  Raised  by  Wm.  H. 
Mills,  of  Hamilton,  Ont.  Ripens  late,  and  is  a  good 
keeper. 

Mineola  (Hyb.). — C.  J.  Copely.  A  large  white 
grape,  claimed  to  be  a  hybrid  between  Telegraph  and 
Chasselas  Musque. 

Missouri  Riesling. — A  small,  late,  pale  red  grape, 
valuable  for  wine  in  Missouri. 

Monroe. — Raised  by  Ellwanger  &  Barry,  Roches- 
ter, N.  Y.  Supposed  to  be  a  cross  between  Delaware 
and  Concord.  An  early,  medium  sized  black  grape,  very 
near  Hartford  Prolific. 

Mrs.  Munson. — Munson.  A  purple  grape,  raised 
by  crossing  Neosho  with  Herbemont.  It  cannot  possibly 
be  of  any  value  in  the  North, 


264  THE   GRAPE   CULTURIST. 

Mrs.  Stayman. — Dr.  Stayman.  Seedling  of  Del- 
aware, of  same  color,  but  bunch  and  berry  larger,  or 
nearer  Catawba  in  size  and  season  of  ripening. 

Muench. — Munson.  Another  cross  between  Ne- 
osho  and  Herbemont.  Ifc  may  succeed  in  the  South. 

Nectar. — Caywood.  Said  to  be  a  cross  between 
Concord  and  Delaware.  Black,  of  medium  size,  and  of 
excellent  quality. 

Neva  Munson. — Munson.  A  cross  between  Ne- 
osho  and  Herbemont.  Berries  large,  black. 

Nina. — Eaised  by  C.  H.  Woodruff,  Ann  Arbor, 
Mich.  Seedling  of  Diana,  and  similar  in  size  and  color, 
but  said  to  ripen  earlier  than  its  parent. 

Norwood. — Introduced  by  T.  B.  White,  Norwood, 
Mass.  Described  as  resembling  Concord,  but  clusters 
and  berries  a  little  larger,  and  ripening  somewhat  earlier. 

Obed. — A  chance  seedling  found  in  Illinois.  Berry 
and  bunch  medium  ;  greenish- white  with  delicate  bloom. 

Omega. — J.  Burr.  A  very  large  red  grape,  de- 
scribed as  of  excellent  quality,  and  the  vine  hardy  and 
prolific  in  the  W^est. 

Onderdonk. — Munson.  A  large  bunch,  but  small 
white  berries.  It  may  be  worth  cultivation  in  the  South. 

Oneida. — Seedling  of  Agawam  (Rogers'  No.  15). 
Similar  in  size  and  color,  but  claimed  to  be  a  better  grape. 

Opal. — Munson.  Bunch  medium.  Berries  de- 
scribed as  large,  and  of  a  yellowish  color.  Seedling  of 
Lindley. 

Oriole  (Hyb.). — Munson.  Small,  black;  vine 
tender.  Recommended  only  for  the  South. 

Orphan  Boy. — Supposed  to  be  a  cross  between 
Delaware  and  Wilder,  but  as  described,  it  is  very  much 
like  Concord. 

Osceola.— Dr.  J.  Stayman.  A  large  white  grape; 
said  to  ripen  early. 

Oskaloosa. — Dr.  Stayman.  Medium  size,  black. 
Supposed  to  be  a  seedling  of  Delaware. 


LITTLE   KNOWtf   VARIETIES.  265 

Ozark. — Dr.  Stayman.  A  very  large  black  grape 
of  unknown  parentage. 

Paragon. — John  Burr.  A  large  black  grape,  ripen- 
ing with  Concord,  but  claimed  to  be  of  better  quality. 

Paragon  (Hyb.). — C.  J.  Copely.  A  large  purple 
grape,  and  a  hybrid  between  Black  Hamburg  and  Tele- 
graph. It  may  thrive  in  protected  gardens,  but  scarcely 
in  the  open  vineyard. 

Pearl. — J.  Rommel.  Bunch  and  berry  medium; 
pale  yellowish  white ;  vine  described  as  hardy  and  pro- 
ductive in  Missouri. 

Peola. — John  Burr.  A  black  grape  of  medium 
size,  and  claimed  to  be  a  fine  dessert  fruit  in  Kansas. 

Perfection. — Dr.  Sfcayman.  Said  to  be  a  seedling 
of  Delaware,  but  larger.  The  originator  claims  that  it 
is  the  best  red  grape  in  Kansas. 

Perry  (Hyb.). — Munson.  A  small  purple  grape; 
for  the  South  only. 

Pierce. — Claimed  to  be  a  sport  of  the  Isabella, 
found  on  a  vine  in  the  grounds  of  J.  P.  Pierce,  Santa 
Clara,  Cal.  The  berries  and  bunches  much  larger  than 
Isabella,  and  berries  round  instead  of  oval,  as  on  the 
parent  vine.  Such  sports  are  not  uncommon  in  all  vine- 
yards, but  they  are  seldom  noticed  and  preserved. 

Prairie  State. — A  white  grape,  said  to  be  a  seed- 
ling of  Martha,  and  better  than  its  parent.  Raised  by 
J.  Christian,  Mount  Carroll,  111. 

Primate. — A  late  red  grape,  introduced  by  John 
Burr.  Very  much  like  Catawba. 

Prof.  Hilyard  (Hyb.). — Munson.  Post  Oak  and 
Herbemont.  Medium,  purple. 

Profitable  (Hyb.). — Munson.  Large,  pale  red; 
berry  slightly  oblong. 

Pulpless. — C.  Engle. — Large,  oval,  black;  ripens 
with  Concord. 

Purity. — Campbell.  Medium,  white,  and  claimed 
to  be  better  than  Delaware,  and  a  strong,  healthy  grower. 


266  THE   GRAPE   CULTUBIST. 

Reagan  (Hyb.). — Munson.  Large  clusters,  with 
medium  size  black  berries. 

Red  Bird. — Munson.  A  cross  between  Champion 
and  Lindley.  Dark  red. 

Red  Eagle.  (Hyb.). — Munson.  Seedling  of  Black 
Eagle ;  dark  red. 

Reliance.— J.  G.  Burrows,  Fishkill,  N.  Y.  A 
cross  between  Delaware  and  Ion  a.  Described  as  a  vigor- 
ous grower,  with  large,  healthy  foliage.  Fruit  resembles 
Delaware,  but  larger. 

Rochester. — Ellwanger  &  Barry;  parentage  un- 
known. Large  bunch,  medium  berry,  black.  Very 
productive,  and  the  fruit  excellent  as  grown  at  Eochester. 

Rockland  Favorite. — Ellwanger  &  Barry.  Seed- 
ling of  Concord,  and  very  much  like  it. 

Roenbeck. — Found  in  the  grounds  of  Jas.  W. 
Trask,  Bergen,  "N.  J. ;  origin  unknown.  Fruit  pale 
green,  and  of  medium  size. 

Rommel  (Hyb.). — Munson.  A  medium  size  berry 
and  large  clusters.  Yellowish  white,  and  it  is  thought 
that  the  vine  will  prove  hardy  in  the  North. 

Roswither. — L.  Hencke,  Collins ville,  111.  A  dark 
purplish  grape  of  medium  size,  ripening  before  the 
Concord. 

Rotent. — Seedling  of  Pocklington,  and  closely  re- 
sembling its  parent.  Eaised  by  C.  F.  Eotent,  Put-in- 
Bay,  0. 

Superb. — Southern  origin,  and  said  to  be  a  seed- 
ling of  Eumelan,  and  of  the  same  color  (black).  Eaised 
by  A.  F.  Eice,  Griswold  ville,  Ga. 

Superior. — John  Burr.    Seedling  of  Jewell.  Black. 

Supreme. — John  Burr.  Same  origin  as  the  last, 
and  same  color. 

Triumph  (Hyb.). — Campbell.     A  hybrid  between 


LITTLE  KNOWN  VARIETIES.  267 

Concord  and  Chasselas  Musque.  Large,  white,  said  to 
succeed  well  in  the  South. 

Ulster  Prolific. — A.  J.  Caywood.  Bunch  and 
berry  medium,  red,  sweet ;  ripens  with  Concord.  Vine 
hardy  and  prolific. 

Undine. — Ricketts.  A  large,  pale  green  grape, 
recommended  for  the  South  only. 

Vergennes. — Introduced  by  Wm.  E.  Green,  Ver- 
gennes,  Vt.  A  large  red  grape,  with  medium  size 
bunch ;  rarely  with  shoulder.  Skin  very  thick  and 
firm ;  pulp  sweet  and  juicy.  Will  probably  become  a 
profitable  market  grape. 

Vinita.  (Hyb.). — Munson.  Same  parentage  as 
the  Perry.  Small,  purple. 

Watertown. — D.  S.  Marvin.  Medium,  greenish- 
white  ;  sweet  and  good. 

Wells.— C.  I.  Roberts,  Butler,  Mo.  Described  as 
a  large,  dark  wine-colored  fruit,  adhering  to  the  bunch 
long  after  it  is  fully  ripe.  A  little  later  than  Concord. 

White  Ann  Arbor. — This  is  another  of  the  many 
hundred  white  grapes  raised  from  Concord  seed,  ripen- 
ing earlier  than  its  parent. 

White  Beauty. — A  seedling  of  Duchess,  of  same 
color,  but  said  to  be  healthy  and  prolific  in  Kansas. 
Raised  by  Dr.  Stayman. 

Whit£  Cloud. — Same  origin  as  the  last,  and  of 
same  color. 

White  Imperial. — This  is  another  seedling  of 
Duchess  raised  by  Dr.  Stayman,  and  much  prized  by  the 
originator  for  its  good  quality,  and  productiveness  of 
the  vine. 

White  Jewell. — Seedling  of  Elvira,  by  Dr.  Stay- 
man, and  claimed  to  be  very  early,  and  one  of  the  best 
white  grapes  in  Kansas. 


268  THE   GRAPE   CULTURIST. 

Witt. — Seedling  of  Concord;  large,  white,  and 
described  as  one  of  the  very  best  of  its  kind. 

Woodbury  White. — Introduced  by  David  B. 
Woodbury,  Paris,  Me.  In  growth  of  vine  it  is  said  to 
resemble  the  Delaware,  but  berries  are  white,  and  as 
large  as  those  of  the  Concord 


CHAPTER  XXIII. 

OLD,    OBSOLETE,    AND   INFERIOR  VARIETIES. 

As  the  new  varieties  are  introduced  and  become 
known,  the  inferior  among  the  older  ones  are  very  likely 
to  be  crowded  out  of  cultivation,  although  an  occasional 
vine  may  remain  in  old  gardens,  or  be  retained  in  vine- 
yards for  the  purpose  of  comparison  with  the  newer  pro- 
ductions. Many  such  old  acquaintances,  and  perhaps 
some  local  favorites,  will  be  found  in  the  following  list, 
and  a  few  of  these  are  still  growing  in  my  own  grounds, 
as  relics  of  more  than  one  hundred  similar  varieties  long 
since  cremated.  There  are  also  a  number  of  varieties 
named  in  this  list  which  may  be  considered  of  some  value 
for  wine,  and  they  will  be  noted,  but  as  this  work  is  not 
intended  as  "a  wine-maker's  manual,"  I  have  paid  very 
little  attention  to  grapes  recommended  only  for  wine. 
I  have  also  purposely  placed  here  many  varieties  which 
are  not  sufficiently  distinct  to  make  them  worthy  of  pres- 
ervation, except  in  the  grounds  of  those  who  pride  them- 
selves upon  the  number  of  names  recorded  in  their  private 
or  published  lists  of  grapes.  If  a  man  has  almost  any 
four  of  Rogers'  hybrids  in  cultivation,  he  possesses  all 
that  is  specially  valuable  in  the  twenty  or  more  originally 
disseminated,  and  this  is  equally  true  of  several  other 


OBSOLETE   AND   INFERIOR  VARIETIES.  269 

collections  which  have  been  distributed  in  years  past  as 
well  as  those  likely  to  be,  in  years  to  come. 

Adelaide.  —  Eicketts.  Hybrid,  black;  vine  un- 
healthy. 

Adeline. — Miner.     White;  obsolete. 

Adirondac. — Proved  to  be  Isabella. 

Advance. — Eicketts.     Hybrid,  black  ;  worthless. 

Aiken. — Seedling  of  Isabella ;  now  lost. 

Albert. — Huber.     Black  ;  too  near  Concord. 

Albino. — J.  B.  Garber.     White ;  now  obsolete. 

Aledo. — B.  F.  Stringer.  Greenish  -  white ;  poor 
quality. 

Alexander. — Old  wild,  black,  fox  grape. 

Allair. — Large,  red,  wild,  fox  grape. 

Alnez  or  Hagar. — Small,  black;  worthless. 

Amanda. — Black,  wild,  fox  grape. 

Aminia. — Eogers'  No.  39  ;  not  sufficiently  distinct 
from  Barry. 

Andover. — Black  fox  ;  worthless. 

Anna. — Hasbrouch.     Late  white;  no  value. 

Archer. — White  ;  too  late  for  the  North. 

Ariadne. — Eicketts.     Small,  black  ;  worthless. 

Arkansas. — Southern.  Doubtful  if  it  can  now  be 
identified. 

Arnold's  Hybrids. —  Eaised  by  the  late  Chas. 
Arnold,  Paris,  Ont.  Introduced  some  thirty  years  ago 
under  various  names ;  but  all  are  worthless  here  in  the 
Northern  States. 

Arrot. — White ;  and  too  near  like  Cassidy. 

Aughwick. — Small,  late,  black;  very  acid. 

August  Pioneer. — An  old,  black,  fox  grape. 

Autuchen. — Arnold.    Greenish-white;  vine  tender. 

Baldwin's  Lenoir. — Black;  no  special  value. 

Barnes. — An  old,  black  grape;  out  of  cultivation. 

Baroness. — Similar  to  Moore's  Early. 

Baxter. — Black,  very  acid;  worthless. 


270  THE  GRAPE   CULTURIST. 

Belinda. — Miner.     Not  distinct  from  Ida. 

Belvidere. — Too  much  like  Hartford. 

Benjamin. — Eesembles  and  ripens  with  Concord. 

Berks  or  Lehigh. — Only  a  Catawba. 

Bird's  Egg. — White  or  spotted  ;  doubtful. 

Black  Defiance. — S.  W.  Underbill.  Of  no  special 
value. 

Black  Eagle.  —  Same  origin  as  the  last,  and 
worthless. 

Black  Hawk. — Probably  out  of  cultivation. 

Black  Imperial. — An  old,  black,  fox  grape ;  but 
this  name  has  recently  been  appropriated  by  Dr.  Stay- 
man  for  one  of  his  new  varieties. 

Black  King. — From  Pa. ;  is  Clinton. 

Black  Maderia. — See  Alexander. 

Blackstone. — An  early,  black,  fox  grape;  worfch- 


Black  Taylor. — May  be  valuable  in  the  South,  but 
very  doubtful. 

Bland. — Southern.  Small,  pale  green ;  obsolete, 
and  the  same  is  true  of  several  other  varieties  which 
Col.  Bland  introduced  many  years  ago. 

Blood's  Black. — And  Blood's  white.  Both  wild, 
fox  grapes  ;  of  no  value. 

Blue  Favorite. — Southern.  Said  to  be  a  good 
wine  grape. 

Boadicea. — Miner.     Doubtful  if  now  known. 

Bottsi. — Southern.     Probably  Herbemont. 

Brackett's  Seedling. — Proved  to  be  Isabella. 

Brandy  wine. — A  white  grape;  a  seedling  of  some 
foreign  variety. 

Brinckle. — Raised  by  Peter  Eaabe.  A  seedling  of 
foreign ;  black  and  worthless. 

Brown. — Too  much  like  its  parent,  the  Isabella. 

Burroughs. — Too  much  like  the  Clinton. 

Burton's  Early. — Wild,  fox  grape. 


OBSOLETE  AND   INFERIOR  VARIETIES.  271 

Cambridge. — Not  distinct  from  Concord. 

Camden. — A  white  fox  grape  of  no  value. 

Canada. — One  of  Arnold's  hybrids;  not  valuable. 

Canada  Wine. — A  wild  frost  grape;  no  value. 

Canby's  August. — Black;  worthless. 

Carlotta. — Miner.     White  ;  like  Augusta. 

Carter. — Black,  and  a  slight  advance  upon  the  wild 
grape. 

Carpenter. — A  supposed  hybrid,  now  obsolete. 

Catawissa. — See  Creveling. 

Charlotte. — Eesembles  Diana;  probably  lost. 

Charter  Oak. — Large,  worthless,  fox  grape. 

Chippewa. — Named  but  not  disseminated  ;  black. 

Christina. — A  large,  black,  fox  grape  ;  obsolete. 

Clara. — A  seedling  of  Vinifera ;  white,  no  value. 

Claret. — The  grape  known  to  me  under  this  name 
is  much  like  Clinton,  but  there  is  said  to  be  another  of  a 
claret  color,  but  of  no  value. 

Clarke. — A  red  grape  from  Washington,  D.  C.;  of 
no  special  value. 

Clinton. — Old  and  well  known  frost  grape;  some- 
times cultivated  in  the  North  for  wine. 

Cloantha. — Black;  seedling  of  Isabella,  but  more 
foxy. 

Cornucopia. — Arnold.     Black,  acid  ;  worthless. 

Cotoctin. — An  old,  white  grape,  now  unknown. 

Cowan. — Very  old;  black,  obsolete. 

Creveling. — Old,  black  grape;  probably  obsolete. 

Croton. — A  white,  hybrid  variety  raised  by  S.  W. 
Under  hill,  but  the  vine  is  tender  and  subject  to  mildew ; 
no  value. 

Cunningham.  —  Small,  blue-black;  valuable  for 
wine  in  the  South. 

Cuyahoga. — A  white  grape  from  Ohio,  which  has 
been  superseded  by  larger  and  better  varieties. 

Don  Juan. — Ricketts.  Large,  dark  red,  probably 
not  disseminated* 


272  THE   GRAPE    CULTURIST. 

Dorinda. — Seedling  of  Rebecca,  and  worthless. 

Dorr  Seedling. — Seedling  of  Delaware ;  discarded. 

Downing. — Eicketts.  A  cross  between  two  foreign 
varieties,  and  worthless  for  vineyard  culture. 

Dracut  Amber.  —  Wild,  red  ;  fox,  or  seedling 
therefrom. 

Dunn. — From  Texas;  of  the  Herbermont  type; 
tender  in  the  North. 

Early  Dawn. — Black ;  early,  but  the  vine  is  very 
feeble. 

Eldorado. — Ricketts.  Vine  subject  to  disease  and 
not  very  hardy. 

Elsingburg. —  Very  small,  late,  black;  of  little 
value. 

Essex. — Rogers'  No.  41.     Rarely  cultivated. 

Eugenia. — Miner.     Very  much  like  Augusta. 

Eumelan. — Medium  black;  vine  unhealthy,  but  is 
said  to  thrive  in  the  South. 

Eureka. — W.  R.  Prince.     Proved  to  be  Diana. 

Eureka. — D.  H.  Bogue.     Very  like  Isabella. 

Ewing. — From  Missouri ;  too  near  Isabella. 

Faith. — Early  white;  excellent  in  Missouri. 

Fancher. — T.  B.  Fancher.     The  old  Catawba. 

Fisk. — J.  T.  Allen,  Salem,  Mass.     Rejected. 

Florence. — Said  to  resemble  Hartford,  but  inferior. 

Flowers. — One  of  the  many  local  names  of  the  wild 
Scupper nong  grape  of  the  South. 

Framingham. — Synonym  of  Hartford  Prolific. 

Franklin.  —  Miner.  Black  seedling  of  Concord, 
but  inferior  to  its  parent. 

Gsertner. — Rogers.  Red;  doubtful  if  now  to  be 
found  in  cultivation. 

Garnet. — Dr.  Wylie.     Of  no  value  in  the  North. 

Gazelle. — Ricketts.     White;  probably  lost. 

Gerber. — Dr.  Wylie.     Medium  black;  of  no  value. 

Golden  Clinton. — An  old,  and  worthless  variety. 


OBSOLETE  AND   INFERIOR  VARIETIES.  273 

Golden    Concord. — "White;  very  much  like,  but 
inferior  to  Martha. 

Graham. — Black  ;  probably  not  in  cultivation. 

Grains'   Golden. — Of  little  or  no  value  here. 

Harrison. — Black  ;  very  late,  not  valuable. 

Harwood. — From   Texas.      May  succeed  in  the 
South. 

Herbert. — Eogers'  No.  44.     Near  to,  but  no  better 
vthan  Barry  and  Aminia. 

Hermann.  — Small,  black;  a  good  wine  grape  in 
the  South. 

Herbemont. — An  old,  and  well  known  wine  grape 
in  the  South. 

Highland. — Eicketts.     Large,  black;  ripens  very 
late. 

Imperial. — Kicketts.     White;  large  but  late. 

Israella. — Dr.  0.  W.  Grant.     Medium,  black ;  vine 
unhealthy. 

Irving. — Underbill.     Black  ;  vine  feeble,  worthless. 

Irving. — October.     Late,  wild,  red,  fox  grape. 

Ives. — Henry  Ives.     Very  near  Hartford  Prolific. 

Jacques. — Synonym  of  Lenoir. 

James. — A  variety  of  the  Scuppernong. 

Jennie  May. — John  Laws.     Probably  Concord. 

Kalamazoo.  — Dixon.     As  described,  near  Catawba. 

Kalista. — J.  Sacksteder.     Very  like  Delaware. 

Kay's  Seedling. — Probably  Herbemont. 

Kendall. — Very  near,  if  not,  Isabella. 

Kilmington. — Not  now  known  by  this  name. 

Kingsessing. — Pale  red,  wild,  fox  grape. 

Kramer's  Seedling. — 0  Kramer.     Probably  Con 
cord. 

Lacrissa. — Sacksteder.     Wh?te  >  seedling  of  Dela- 
ware. 

Lady     Charlotte.  —  Pringle.       White;     scarcely 
known  in  cultivation. 
13 


274  THE  GBAPE  CULTURIST. 

Lawrence. — Dr.  Fay.    Similar,  but  inferior  to 
Concord. 

Lenoir.— Small,  blue-black;  Southern  wine  grape, 

Lexington. — Miner.     Black ;  not  in  cultivation. 

Lincoln. — Small,  black ;  Southern  wine  grape. 

Linden. — Miner.     Medium,  black ;  worthless. 

Lindley. — Kogers'  No.  9.     Large,  red ;  said  to  be  a 
fine  grape  in  the  South. 

Logan. — An  old,  black  grape,  of  no  value. 

Lorain. — Similar  to  above ;  never  disseminated. 

Louisiana. — Southern  wine  grape. 

Luna. — Too  near  Martha,  if  not  identical. 

Lutie. — Seedling  of  wild,  red,  fox  gra}>e. 

Lydia. — Chas.  Carpenter.     White;  of  little  value. 

Lyman. — Small,  black ;  much  like  Clinton. 

Lyons. — Red,  and  very  near  Catawba. 

Manhattan. — Medium  size,  wild,  white,  fox  grape. 

Mammoth  Sage. — Large,  red,  fox  grape. 

Marsala.-— A  red  fox  grape  of  little  value. 

Marion. — An  old,  black  variety ;  obsolete. 

Mary  Ann. — J.  B.  Garber.     Black ;  now  unknown. 

Mary. — Carpenter.     White;  long  since  discarded. 

Mary  Wylie. — Dr.  Wylie.     Worthless  except  in 
the  South. 

Massasoit. — Rogers'  No.  3.     Too  near  Salem  and 
Lindley,  but  neither  worse  nor  better. 

Maxatawney. — Small,  pale  yellow,  and  worthless. 

Maclure. — Peter  Wylie.     Small,    white;    of    no 
special  value. 

Meade's  Seedling. — Synonym  of  Catawba. 

Medora. — Small,  white  ;  may  succeed  in  the  South. 

Merrimac.— Rogers'  No.    19.     Too   much    like 
Wilder,  or  Rogers'  No.  4. 

Metternich.  —  Caywood.       Small,     black;     vino 
unhealthy. 

Minnehaha. — Seedling  of  some  foreign  variety. 


OBSOLETE  AND  INFERIOR  VARIETIES.  275 

Mottled. — Carpenter.     Long  since  discarded. 

Naomi .  — Eicketts.  Large,  pale  red ;  vine  unhealthy. 

Nebraska. — Wilding.     See  page  104. 

Neosha. — Wilding.  From  Missouri;  good  for 
wine. 

Neverfail. — Black,  and  very  late. 

Newark.  —  Medium  black;  subject  to  rot  and 
mildew. 

Newburg. — Kicketts.     Of  doubtful  value. 

New  Haven. — Too  near  Concord  to  be  retained. 

Noah. — Small,  greenish-white;  of  no  special  value. 

Nonantum. — Francis  Dana.     Very  like  Isabella. 

North  America. — Wild,  black,  fox  grape. 

North  Carolina. — Very  close  to  Isabella. 

Northern  Muscadine. — Wild,  red,  fox  grape. 

Norton's  Virginia. — Southern.  Sparingly  culti- 
vated for  wine. 

Oberon. — Campbell.     Black ;  vine  tender. 

Ohio. — Red  ;  and  probably  now  unknown. 

Old  Ford. — A  wild,  red  grape  from  N.  0. 

Onondaga. — Very  close  to  Delaware. 

Ontario. — Same  as  Union  Village. 

Oporto. — Old,  and  worthless  native  variety. 

Oriental. — Not  sufficiently  distinct  to  be  preserved. 

Osage. — Origin  and  merits  in  doubt. 

Osee. — White  ;  recommended  for  wine  only. 

Othello. — Arnals'  Hybrid.     Black  ;  very  late 

Pauline. — Similar  to  Lenoir  and  Lincoln. 

Pauline. — Miner.     Similar  to  Antoinette;   white. 

Peabody.  —  Ricketts'  Hybrid.  May  be  valuable 
South. 

Pearson's  Ironclad. — A.  W.  Pearson.  Excellent 
for  wine. 

Perkins. — Old,  red,  fox  grape  ;  worthless. 

Peter  Wylie. — Dr.  Wylie.  Small,  white ;  foreign 
parentage,  succeeds  best  in  the  South. 


276  THE  GRAPE  CULTUBIST. 

Pizzaro.—  Ricketts.     Eecommended  for  red  wine. 

Pollock.  —  Purplish  black;  seedling  of  foreign 
species,  and  worthless. 

Progress. — Much  like  Catawba,  but  not  as  good. 

Putnam. — Ricketts.    Of  this  variety  little  is  known. 

Quassaic. — Ricketts.     Of  doubtful  value. 

Raabe. — Peter  Raabe.     Small,  red  ;  worthless. 

Racine. — Small,  black;    Southern;  unproductive. 

Rariton.— Ricketts.     Recommended  for  wine  only. 

Rachel. — Small,  white  ;  probably  obsolete. 

Rebecca. — E.  M.  Peake.     White  ;  vine  unhealthy 

Red  Shepherd. — Small,  red  ;  discarded. 

Rentz. — S.  Rentz.     Large,  black  ;  rejected. 

Requa. — Rogers'  No.  28.     Red;  unreliable. 

Rockinham. — Miner.     Medium,  black ;  worthless. 

Rockwood. — E.  W.  Bull.     Inferior  to  Concord. 

Rulander. — A  Southern  wine  grape. 

Sanasqua. — Underbill.    Purplish- black;  unreliable. 

Saratoga. — Proved  to  be  Catawba. 

Secretary. — Ricketts.  Large,  black,  acid ;  scarcely 
edible,  and  vine  unhealthy. 

Selma. — Black  ;  recommended  for  red  wine. 

Seneca. — Seedling  of  Hartford,  and  of  no  value. 

Sharon. — Too  much  like  Isabella. 

St.  Catharine. — J.  W.  Clark.  Seedling  of  wild, 
red,  fox  grape,  and  of  no  value. 

Storm  King. — E.  P.  Roe.  Very  near  if  not  iden- 
tical with  Concord. 

Taylor. — Small,  white,  and  worthless. 

Telegraph.  —  An  old,  early,  black  grape;  near 
Hartford. 

Theodosia. — E.  S.  Salisbury.  Small,  black  ;  like 
Clinton. 

Thomas. — A  variety  of  the  Scuppernong.  Valua- 
ble in  the  South. 

To  Kalon. — Large,  purplish  black;  long  since 
discarded. 


OBSOLETE   AND    INFERIOR   VARIETIES.  277 

Transparent. — Seedling  of  Taylor;  for  wine  only. 

Uhland. — Greenish-yellow,  similar  to  Taylor. 

Underbill.—  Dr.  A.  K.  Underbill  Wild,  red,  fox 
grape. 

Union  Village. — Late,  black;  of  no  special  value. 

Urbana. — Seedling  of  Concord;  yellowish-white, 
late. 

Venongo. — An  old,  red,  fox  grape;  long  since 
discarded. 

Victoria. — Miner.     Very  like  Antoinette. 

Waverly. — Ricketts.     Black  ;  very  acid  and  late. 

"White  Catawba. — J.  E.  Mottier.  Long  since 
discarded. 

White  Delaware. — Of  these  there  are  a  great 
number,  but  I  have  yet  to  see  one  worth  cultivating. 

Wilmington. — Greenish-white  ;  old  and  discarded. 

Yeddo. — From  Japan,  and  of  no  value. 

York  Maderia. — An  old,  black  grape;  long  since 
discarded. 

Young  America. — Miller.  Very  much  like  Con- 
cord. 


CHRONOLOGICAL    CATALOGUE 
OF 

WORKS  ON  GRAPE  CULTURE. 

PUBLISHED    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES,    WITH    DATE    AND    PLACE 
OF    ^UBLICATION,    AND   NAMES    OF    AUTHORS. 


1823 — A  Memoir  on  the  Cultivation  of  the  Vine.     By  John 
Adlum,  Washington,  D.  C. 

1826.  —  The    American    Vinedresser's    Guide.      John    James 

Dufour,  Cincinnati,  Ohio. 

1827.  —  The   American  Vinedresser's  Guide.     Alphonse  Lou- 

bat,  N.  Y. 
1829. — Vinedresser's  Theoretical  and  Practical  Manual.     The"a- 

baut    de    Berneaud    (translated    from   the    French), 

New  York. 
1830 — American  Manual  of  the  Grape  Vine.     C.  S.  Rafinesque, 

Philadelphia. 

1830. — Treatise  on  the  Vine.     William  R.  Prince,  New  York. 
1834. — Observations    on   the   European   Vine.     S.   I.  Fisher, 

Philadelphia. 
1837. — Practical  Treatise  on  the  Cultivation  of  the  Grape  Vine. 

Clement  Hoare  (reprint  from  the  English  edition), 

Boston. 
1846. — Cultivation  of  American  Grape  Vines.     Alden  Spooner, 

Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

1848. — Grapes  and  Wine.     James  Busby,  New  York. 
1852. — Culture  of  the  Grape.     Robert  Buchanan,  Cincinnati, 

Ohio. 
1852. — American  Grape  Grower's  Guide.     William  Chorlton, 

New  York. 

1853.— The  Cold  Grapery.     William  Chorlton,  New  York. 
1853. — A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Culture  of  the  Grape  Vine. 

J.  Fiske  Allen,  New  York. 
1854 A  Rough  Sketch  of  the  Renewal  System  of  Pruning 

Grape  Vines.     William  Martin,  Sr.,  Pittsburg,  Pa. 

278 


WORKS  OK  GRAPE  CULTURE.  279 


1855 — The  Vine;   its  Culture  in  the  United  States.    R.  H. 

Phelps,  Hartford,  Conn. 
1856. — A  Treatise  on  the  Culture  and  Management  of  Grape 

Vines.     James  Suydam,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

1856. — New  Process  of  the  Culture  of  the  Vine.     Persoz  (trans- 
lated by  J.  O'C.  Barclay),  New  York. 

1859. — Vinedresser's  Manual.     Charles  Reemelin,  New  York. 
1859. — Grape  Culture.     H.  De  Caradeuc,  Augusta,  Georgia. 
I860. — An  Essay  on  Grape  Culture.     By  George  Husmann,  St. 

Louis,  Mo. 
I860. — Both  Sides  of  the  Grape  Question.     William  Saunders, 

Philadelphia. 

I860.— Bright  on  the  Grape.     William  Bright,  Philadelphia. 
1862. — Open  Air  Grape  Culture.     John  Phin,  New  York. 
1863.— Our  Hardy  Grapes.     J.  M.  Knowlton,  New  York. 
1863. — An  Essay  on  the  Culture  of  the  Grape.     George  Hus- 
mann, Hermann,  Mo. 
1863 — Grape  Culture  and  Wine  Making.     A.  Haraszthy,  New 

York. 

1864.— The  Grape  Culturist.     A.  S.  Fuller,  New  York. 
1865. — Grape    Culture   in    Steuben   Co.     Hon.    G.    Dennison, 

Prattsburg,  N.  Y.     Prize  Essay  for  the  N.  Y.  State 

Agricultural  Society. 
1866 — The  Canada  Vine  Grower.     By  J.  M.  De  Courtenay, 

Toronto. 
1866 My   Vineyard   at   LakeviUe.     By   A   Western   Grape 

Grower,  New  York. 
1866 — Grapes  and  Wine.     George  Husmann,  Hermann,  Mo. 

New  York. 

1866 — Manual  of  the  Vine.     C.  W.  Grant,  lona,  N.  Y. 
1866. — Essay   on   Grape   Culture   and  Wine  Making.     B.  D. 

Reddington,  Rockland,  Iowa. 
1866 — Essay  on  a  New  System  of  Grape  Culture.     Dr.  H. 

Schroeder,  Bloomington,  111. 
1866 — Culture  of  the  Grape.     W.  C.  Strong,  Brighton,  Mass. 

Boston. 
1867 — Hand  Book  of  Grape  Culture.      T.  Hart  Hyatt,  San 

Francisco,  Cal. 
1867. — The  Grape  Vine.     By  Frederick  Mohr  (translated  by 

Prof.  Charles  Siedhof),  New  York. 
1867 — Vineyard    Culture.     By  Du  Breul,  with  notes  by  Dr. 

John  A.  Warder,  Cincinnati,  Ohio. 
1867. — An  Elementary  Treatise  on  American  Grape  Culture. 

By  Peter  B.  Meade,  New  York. 
1867 — The  Champagne  County.    By  Robert  Tomes,  New  York. 


280  THE   GRAPE   CULTURIST. 


1868 — The  Wine  Maker's  Manual.  By  Charles  Reemelin, 
Cincinnati,  Ohio. 

1868. — Rudiments  of  Grape  Culture.  By  John  R.  Eakin, 
Little  Rock,  Ark. 

1869. — Three  seasons  in  European  Vineyards.  By  Wilson  J. 
Flagg,  New  York. 

1877 — Various  Experiments  with  Grapes.  By  George  Haskell, 
Ipswich,  Mass. 

1880 — Report  upon  Statistics  of  Grape  Culture  and  Wine 
Production.  By  Wm.  McMurtie,  Ph.  D.,  Department 
of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C. 

1881. — First  Annual  Report  of  the  Board  of  the  State  Viticul- 
tural  Commissioners  of  California,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 
The  second  report  of  the  same,  1882 ;  the  third,  1884 ; 
and  others  at  intervals  down  to  the  present  time. 

1886. — Report  on  the  Fungus  Diseases  of  the  Vine.  By  Lam- 
son  Scribner,  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washing- 
ton, D.  C. 

1888. — Report  on  the  Experiments  made  in  1887,  in  the  Treat- 
ment of  the  Downy  Mildew  and  Black  Rot  of  the 
Grape  Vine.  B.  F.  Lamson  Scribner,  Department  of 
Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C. 

1890. — Classification  and  Generic  Synopsis  of  the  Wild  Grapes 
of  North  America.  By  T.  V.  Munson,  Department 
of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C. 

1891. — Fungus  Diseases  of  the  Grape,  and  their  Treatment. 
By  B.  T.  Gallaway,  IT.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture, 
Washington,  D.  C. 

1893 — Our  Native  Grapes.  Grapes  and  their  Culture.  Pub- 
lished by  C.  Mitzky  &  Co.,  Rochester,  N.  Y. 

1893. — American  Grape  Training.  By  L.  H.  Bailey,  New 
York. 

1893.— Practical  Treatise  on  Grape  Culture.  By  J.  H.  Tryon, 
Willoughby,  Ohio. 


INDEX 


PAGE 

Abbot  sphinx 218 

Acheruon  sphinx ,   ....  218 

Adventitious  bads , 112 

Alternate  renewal  system 180 

Al  ypia  octomaculata 220 

Ammoniacal  solutions 236 

Anthracnose 234 

Application  of  remedies 237 

A  single-roofed  house 46 

Bagging  grapes 195 

Black  rot 234 

Blue  caterpillars 219 

Bine  flea  beetle 208 

Books  on  grape  culture 278 

Borders  and  drains 158 

Bordeaux  mixture 236 

Botanical  characteristics 3 

Bow  system 190 

Bright's  dwarf  renewal  system  177 

Broad-necked  prioiius 211 

Brown  rot 233 

Buds 112 

Buck  pruning 171 

Bxick  pruning 185 

Bunch  with  shoulder Ill 

Butterflies 204 

California  prionus 212 

Callus  on  cuttings 57 

Caterpillars 212 

Cecropia  moth 218 

Chaerocampa  pampinatrix 218 

Classification  of  the  grape 9 

"  of  species 3 

Copper  sulphate 236 

Coleoptera 204 

Cork  dust  for  packing 198 

Cotalpa  lanigera 209 

Cottony  maple-scale 224 

Cross  fertilizing 79 

Cuttings  in  the  open  air 48 

"         in  pots 39 

Dactyl  opius  adonidum 224 

Description  of  varieties 239 

Desmia  maculalis 213 

Diseases  of  the  grape 231 

Double  buds 112 

"        stem  vine 166 

Downy  mildew 233 


PAGB 

Eau  celeste 237 

Eight-spotted  forester 220 

Entomological  works 206 

Eudryas  grata 219 

"         unio 220 

Fan  system  of  training 169 

Fldia  viticida 210 

Form  of  berries 242 

"       of  cuttings 49 

"       of  leaves 103 

"       of  single  bud  cutting 33 

Four  tiers  of  arms 162 

Fox  grape 6 

Frost  grape 7 

Fungus  diseases 231 

Garden  culture 156 

Gathering  the  fruit 196 

German  bow  system 186 

Girdling  the  vine 173 

Goat's  beard  spiraea 208 

Goldsmith  beetle 210 

Grafting  machines 73 

"         the  grape 63 

Grape  cane  curculio 211 

Grapevine  fidia 210 

Grape  leaf  folder 213 

"         "     louse 226 

"        root  borer 211 

"       trellises 120 

Grapevine  plume 213 

Graptodera  chalybea 208 

Growing  from  seed 15 

Gray  rot 233 

Heeling-in 88 

Hemiptera 204 

Herbaceous  grafting 73 

Hog  caterpillar 218 

Honey-bees  and  grapes 205 

Hotbeds , 31 

How  to  layer  vines 59 

"      "    plant  out 84 

Husmann's  bow  system 190 

Hybridizing  and  crossing 74 

Hymenoptera 205 

Inarching  vines 72 

Inferior  varieties 266 

Insect  enemies    203 

Implements  for  the  vineyard..  201 


281 


282 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Kniffm's  system 192 

Lady  bug,  or  beetle 222 

Lses tadia  Bidwellii 234 

Layering  the  vine 58 

Leaf  hopper 221 

Lean-to  propagating  house 45 

Leaves,  forms  of 103 

Lepidoptera 204 , 

Long  rod  system 183  ] 

Long  spurs  «n  vines 140  ] 

Malaga  grape 198  1 

Mallet  cuttings 55 

Manures 97  I 

Mealy  bug 224 

Method  of  applying  remedies . .  238 

Munsoii's  renewal  system 181 

Nebraska  grape 105 

New  and  little  known  varieties  254 

Oblique  arms 150 

Old  and  obsolete  varieties 269 

One  arm  vine 161 

Opposite  arms 147 

Pearl  wood  nymph 220 

Pelidnota  punctata 209 

Pemphigus  vitifolia 226 

Persian  insect  powder 222 

Peroiiospora  viticola 233 

Philampelus  Achemon 218 

"  Satellitia 216 

Phylloxera  vastatrix 226 

Pinching  laterals 85 

Planting  cuttings 51 

"  in  beds 26 

"          the  vines 114 

Platysamia  Cecropia 218 

Portion  of  vine  with  tendril....  109 

Post  oak  grape 108 

Position  of  border 160 

Powdery  mildew 233 

Preparing  the  soil 94 

Procris  Americana 220 

Propagation  from  seed . .     12 

Pruning  and  training 125 

Pruning  shears 201 

Pterophorus,  perisceUdactylus  213 

Pulvinaria  innumerabilis 225 

Red  spider 222 

Renewal  systems 181 

Remedies  and  the  preparation  236 

Removing  the  leaves 174 

"  the  anthers 79 

Reversing  the  arms 186 

Ricketts'  hybrids 240 

River  grape 5 

Rogers'  hybrids 240 

Root  pruning 115 

Rose  chafer 207 

Ruben's  system 189 


PAGE 
Sand  for  cuttings 23 

Scuppernong  grape 106 

Selection  of  cuttings 49 

Short  spurs  on  vines 139 

Single  arm  system 185 

"        buds 22 

"          "      in  open  air 27 

Spseceloma  ampelinum 2b4 

Special  manures loo 

Sphinx  moths 214 

Sphingidse 214 

Spilosoma  Virgiiiica 214 

Spiraeas 208 

Splice  grafting 71 

Soil  and  situation 89 

Southern  fox  grape  8 

Spotted  pelidnota 209 

Starting  in  hotbeds 28 

Stem  appendages 102 

Structure  of  flowers. 13 

Summer  grape 6 

Tendrils 110 

Tetranychus  telarius 222 

The  American  procris 220 

beautiful  wood  nymph —  ^19 

fan  system 193 

Kniffin  system 194 

grape  curculio 210 

leaf  folder 213 

oporto  grape  leaf 104 

"    satelite  sphinx 216 

"    yellow  bear 214 

Thick-leaved  grape 5 

Thinning  the  fruit 194 

Thomery  syst em 183 

Three-bud  cuttings 50 

Thrips,  aphis  and  scales 221 

Thyreus  Abbotii 218 

Tile-horned  prlonus 211 

Time  to  make  cuttings 49 

"      to  prune  vines 123 

Training  to  stakes 167 

"  vines  in  gardens 160 

Transplanting  81 

Trellises  in  gardens 166 

Two-bud  cuttings 50 

Uncinula  spiralis 2.°3 

Varieties  little  known V-A 

Various  systems  of  training —  1,6 

Vitis  vinifera !0 

"      species  of 9 

Weight  of  soil b3 

Western  grapes 5 

Winter  grapes 7 

Wine  making 1!)9 

Wire,  sizes  of 122 

Yeddo  grape 107 


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policy  of  the  author  in  his  work,  and  every  crop  treated  is 
presented  in  the  light  of  individual  study  of  the  plant.  If  you 
have  this  book  you  have  the  latest  and  best  that  has  been 
written  upon  the  subject.  Illustrated.  450  pages.  5^  x  8 
inches.  Cloth $1.75 

The  Forage  and  Fiber  Crops  in  America 

By  THOMAS  F.  HUNT.  This  book  is  exactly  what  its  title 
indicates.  It  is  indispensable  to  the  farmer,  student  and  teacher 
who  wishes  all  the  latest  and  most  important  information  on 
the  subject  of  forage  and  fiber  crops.  Like  its  famous  com- 
panion, "The  Cereals  in  America,"  by  the  same  author,  it 
treats  of  the  cultivation  and  improvement  of  every  one  of  the 
forage  and  fiber  crops.  With  this  book  in  hand,  you  have 
the  latest  and  most  up-to-date  information  available.  Illus- 
trated. 428  pages.  $y2  x  8  inches.  Cloth $1.75 

The  Book  of  Alfalfa 

History.  Cultivation  and  Merits.  Its  Uses  as  a  Forage 
and  Fertilizer.  The  appearance  of  the  Hon.  F.  D.  COBURN'S 
little  book  on  Alfalfa  a  few  years  ago  has  been  a  profit  revela- 
tion to  thousands  of  farmers  throughout  the  country,  and  the 
increasing  demand  for  still  more  information  on  the  subject 
has  induced  the  author  to  prepare  the  present  volume,  which 
is  by  far  the  most  authoritative,  complete  and  valuable  work 
on  this  forage  crop  published  anywhere.  It  is  printed  on  fine 
paper  and  illustrated  with  many  full-page  photographs  that 
were  taken  with  the  especial  view  of  their  relation  to  the  text. 
336  pages.  6l/2  x  9  inches.  Bound  in  cloth,  with  gold  stamp- 
ing. It  is  unquestionably  the  handsomest  agricultural  reference 
book  that  has  ever  been  issued.  Price,  postpaid  .  .  .  $2.00 

Clean  Milk 

By  S.  D.  BELCHER,  M.D.  In  this  book  the  author  sets  forth 
practical  methods  for  the  exclusion  of  bacteria  from  milk, 
and  how  to  prevent  contamination  of  milk  from  the  stable  to 
the  consumer.  Illustrated.  5x7  inches.  146  pages. 
Cloth $1.00 


Bean  Culture 

By  GLENN  C.  SEVEY,  B.S.  A  practical  treatise  on  the  pro- 
duction and  marketing  of  beans.  It  includes  the  manner  of 
growth,  soils  and  fertilizers  adapted,  best  varieties,  seed  selec- 
tion and  breeding,  planting,  harvesting,  insects  and  fungous 
pests,  composition  and  feeding  value;  with  a  special  chapter 
on  markets  by  Albert  W.  Fulton.  A  practical  book  for  the 
grower  and  student  alike.  Illustrated.  144  pages.  5x7 
inches.  Cloth $0.50 

Celery  Culture 

By  W.  R.  BEATTIE.  A  practical  guide  for  beginners  and  a 
standard  reference  of  great  interest  to  persons  already  engaged 
in  celery  growing.  It  contains  many  illustrations  giving  a  clear 
conception  of  the  practical  side  of  celery  culture.  The  work 
is  complete  in  every  detail,  from  sowing  a  few  seeds  in  a 
window-box  in  the  house  for  early  plants,  to  the  handling 
and  marketing  of  celery  in  carload  lots.  Fully  illustrated. 
150  pages.  5x7  inches.  Cloth $0.50 

Tomato  Culture 

By  WILL  W.  TRACY.  The  author  has  rounded  up  in  this 
book  the  most  complete  account  of  tomato  culture  in  all  its 
phases  that  has  ever  been  gotten  together.  It  is  no  second- 
hand work  of  reference,  but  a  complete  story  of  the  practical 
experiences  of  the  best  posted  expert  on  tomatoes  in  the  world. 
No  gardener  or  farmer  can  afford  to  be  without  the  book. 
Whether  grown  for  home  use  or  commercial  purposes,  the 
reader  has  here  suggestions  and  information  nowhere  else 
available.  Illustrated.  150  pages.  5x7  inches.  Cloth.  $0.50 

The  Potato 

By  SAMUEL  FRASER.  This  book  is  destined  to  rank  as  a 
standard  work  upon  Potato  Culture.  While  the  practical  side 
has  been  emphasized,  the  scientific  part  has  not  been  neglected, 
and  the  information  given  is  of  value,  both  to  the  grower  and 
the  student.  Taken  all  in  all,  it  is  the  most  complete,  reliable 
and  authoritative  book  on  the  potato  ever  published  in  America. 
Illustrated.  200  pages.  5x7  inches.  Cloth $0.75 

Dwarf  Fruit  Trees 

By  F.  A.  WAUGH.  This  interesting  book  describes  in  detail 
the  several  varieties  of  dwarf  fruit  trees,  their  propagation, 
planting,  pruning,  care  and  general  management.  Where  there 
is  a  limited  amount  of  ground  to  be  devoted  to  orchard  pur- 
poses, and  where  quick  results  are  desired,  this  book  will  meet 
with  a  warm  welcome.  Illustrated.  112  pages.  5x7  inches. 
Cloth.  ....**** $0.50 


Cabbage,  Cauliflower  and  Allied  Vegetables 

By  C.  L.  ALLEN.  A  practical  treatise  on  the  various 
types  and  varieties  of  cabbage,  cauliflower,  broccoli,  Brussels 
sprouts,  kale,  collards  and  kohj-rabi.  An  explanation  is  given 
of  the  requirements,  conditions,  cultivation  and  general 
management  pertaining  to  the  entire  cabbage  group.  After  this 
each  class  is  treated  separately  and  in  detail.  The  chapter 
on  seed  raising  is  probably  the  most  authoritative  treatise  on 
this  subject  ever  published.  Insects  and  fungi  attacking  this 
class  of  vegetables  are  given  due  attention.  Illustrated.  126 
pages.  5x7  inches.  Cloth.  .  .  ....  $0.50 


Asparagus 

By  F.  M.  HEXAMER.  This  is  the  first  book  published  in 
America  which  is  exclusively  devoted  to  the  raising  of  aspara* 
gus  for  home  use  as  well  as  for  market.  It  is  a  practical 
and  reliable  treatise  on  the  saving  of  the  seed,  raising  of  the 
plants,  selection  and  preparation  of  the  soil,  planting,  cultiva- 
tion, manuring,  cutting,  bunching,  packing,  marketing,  canning 
and  drying  insect  enemies,  fungous  diseases  and  every  require- 
ment to  successful  asparagus  culture,  special  emphasis  being 
given  to  the  importance  of  asparagus  as  a  farm  and  money 
crop.  Illustrated.  174  pages.  5x7  inches.  Cloth.  $0.50 


The  New  Onion  Culture 

By  T.  GREINER.  Rewritten,  greatly  enlarged  and  brought 
up  to  date.  A  new  method  of  growing  onions  of  largest  size 
and  yield,  on  less  land,  than  can  be  raised  by  the  old  plan. 
Thousands  of  farmers  and  gardeners  and  many  experiment 
stations  have  given  it  practical  trials  which  have  proved  a 
success.  A  complete  guide  in  growing  onions  with  the  great- 
est profit,  explaining  the  whys  and  wherefores.  Illustrated. 
5x7  inches.  140  pages.  Cloth $0.50 


The  New  Rhubarb  Culture 

A  complete  guide  to  dark  forcing  and  field  culture.  Part 
I — By  J.  E.  MORSE,  the  well-known  Michigan  trucker  and 
originator  of  the  now  famous  and  extremely  profitable  new 
methods  of  dark  forcing  and  field  culture.  Part  II — Compiled 
by  G.  B.  FISKE.  Other  methods  practiced  by  the  most  experi- 
enced market  gardeners,  greenhouse  men  and  experimenters  in 
all  parts  of  America.  Illustrated.  130  pages.  5x7  inches. 
Cloth $0.50 


Alfalfa 

By  F.  D.  COBURN.  Its  growth,  uses  and  feeding  value. 
.The  fact  that  alfalfa  thrives  in  almost  any  soil;  that  without 
reseeding  it  goes  on  yielding  two,  three,  four  and  sometimes 
five  cuttings  annually  for  five,  ten  or  perhaps  100  years ;  and 
that  either  green  or  cured  it  is  one  of  the  most  nutritious 
forage  plants  known,  makes  reliable  information  upon  its  pro- 
duction and  uses  of  unusual  interest.  Such  information  is 
given  in  this  volume  for  every  part  of  America,  by  the  highest 
authority.  Illustrated.  164  pages.  5x7  inches.  Cloth.  $0.50 

Ginseng,  Its  Cultivation,   Harvesting,   Market' 
ing  and  Market  Value 

By  MAURICE  G.  KAINS,  with  a  short  account  of  its  historv 
and  botany.  It  discusses  in  a  practical  way  how  to  begin  with 
either  seed  or  roots,  soil,  climate  and  location,  preparation, 
planting  and  maintenance  of  the  beds,  artificial  propagation, 
manures,  enemies,  selection  for  market  and  for  improvement, 
preparation  for  sale,  and  the  profits  that  may  be  expected. 
This  booklet  is  concisely  written,  well  and  profusely  illus- 
trated, and  should  be  in  the  hands  of  all  who  expect  to  grow 
this  drug  to  supply  the  export  trade,  and  to  add  a  new  and 
profitable  industry  to  their  farms  and  gardens  without  inter- 
fering with  the  regular  work.  New  edition.  Revised  and  en- 
larged. Illustrated.  5x7  inches.  Cloth.  .  .  .  $0.50 

Landscape  Gardening 

By  F.  A.  WAUGH,  professor  of  horticulture,  University  of 
Vermont.  A  treatise  on  the  general  principles  governing 
outdoor  art ;  with  sundry  suggestions  for  their  application 
in  the  commoner  problems  of  gardening.  Every  paragraph  is 
short,  terse  and  to  the  point,  giving  perfect  clearness  to  the 
discussions  at  all  points.  In  spite  of  the  natural  difficulty 
of  presenting  abstract  principles  the  whole  matter  is  made 
entirely  plain  even  to  the  inexperienced  reader.  Illustrated. 
152  pages.  5x7  inches.  Cloth.  .  »  .  .  .  $0.50 

Hedges,  Windbreaks,  Shelters  and  Live  Fences 

By  E.  P.  POWELL.  A  treatise  on  the  planting,  growth 
and  management  of  hedge  plants  for  country  and  suburban 
homes.  It  gives  accurate  directions  concerning  hedges ;  how 
to  plant  and  how  to  treat  them ;  and  especially  concerning 
windbreaks  and  shelters.  It  includes  the  whole  art  of  making 
a  delightful  home,  giving  directions  for  nooks  and  balconies, 
for  bird  culture  and  for  human  comfort.  Illustrated.  140 
pages.  5x7  inches.  Cloth $0.50 


Farm  Grasses  of  the  United  States  of  America 

By  WILLIAM  JASPER  SPILLMAN.  A  practical  treatise  on 
the  grass  crop,  seeding  and  management  of  meadows  and 
pastures,  description  of  the  best  varieties,  the  seed  and  its 
impurities,  grasses  for  special  conditions,  lawns  and  iawn 
grasses,  etc.,  etc.  In  preparing  this  volume  the  author's  ob- 
ject has  been  to  present,  in  connected  form,  the  main  facts 
concerning  the  grasses  grown  on  American  farms.  Every 
phase  of  the  subject  is  viewed  from  the  farmer's  standpoint. 
Illustrated.  248  pages.  5x7  inches.  Cloth.  .  .  $1.00 


The  Book  of  Corn 

By  HERBERT  MYRICK,  assisted  by  A-  D  SHAMEL,  E.  A. 
BURNETT,  ALBERT  W.  FULTON,  B.  W.  SNOW  and  other  most 
capable  specialists.  A  complete  treatise  on  tfce  culture, 
marketing  and  uses  of  maize  in  America  and  elsewhere,  for 
farmers,  dealers  and  others.  Illustrated.  372  pages.  5x7 
inches.  Cloth «...  $1.0 


The   Hop  — It's  Culture  and  Care,  Maiketing 
and  Manufacture 

By  HERBERT  MYRICK.  A  practical  handbook  on  the  most 
approved  methods  in  growing,  harvesting,  curing  and  selling 
hops,  and  on  the  use  and  manufacture  of  hops.  The  result  of 
years  of  research  and  observation,  it  is  a  volume  destined  to 
be  an  authority  on  this  crop  for  many  years  to  come.  It 
takes  up  every  detail  from  preparing  the  soil  and  laying  out 
the  yard  to  curing  and  selling  the  crop.  Every  line  represents 
the  ripest  judgment  and  experience  of  experts.  Size,  5x8; 
pages,  300 ;  illustrations,  nearly  150 ;  bound  in  cloth  and  gold ; 
price,  postpaid, *  .  i  .  $1.50 


Tobacco  Leaf 

By  J.  B.  KILLEBREW  and  HERBERT  MYRICK.  Its  Culture 
and  Cure,  Marketing  and  Manufacture.  A  practical  hand- 
book on  the  ^  most  approved  methods  in  growing,  harvesting, 
curing,  packing  and  selling  tobacco,  with  an  account  of  the 
operations  in  every  department  of  tobacco  manufacture.  The 
contents  of  this  book  are  based  on  actual  experiments  in 
field,  curing  barn,  packing  house,  factory  and  laboratory.  It 
is  the  only  work  of  the  kind  in  existence,  and  i?  destined  to  be 
the  standard  practical  and  scientific  authority  on  the  whole 
subject  of  tobacco  for  many  years.  506  pages  and  150  original 
engravings.  5x7  inches.  Cloth $^.OQ 


Bulbs  and  Tuberous-Rooted  Plants 

By  C.  L.  ALLEN.  A  complete  treatise  on  the  history, 
description,  methods  of  propagation  and  full  directions  for 
the  successful  culture  of  bulbs  in  the  garden,  dwelling  and 
greenhouse.  The  author  of  this  book  has  for  many  years 
made  bulb  growing  a  specialty,  and  is  a  recognized  authority 
on  their  cultivation  and  management.  The  cultural  direc- 
tions are  plainly  stated,  practical  and  to  the  point.  The 
illustrations  which  embellish  this  work  have  been  drawn 
from  nature  and  have  been  engraved  especially  for  this 
book.  312  pages.  5x7  inches.  Cloth.  .  .  .  $1.50 

Fumigation  Methods 

By  WILLIS  G.  JOHNSON.  A  timely  up-to-date  book  on 
the  practical  application  of  the  new  methods  for  destroying 
insects  with  hydrocyanic  acid  gas  and  carbon  bisulphid,  the 
most  powerful  insecticides  ever  discovered.  It  is  an  indis- 
pensable book  for  farmers,  fruit  growers,  nurserymen,  garden- 
ers, florists,  millers,  grain  dealers,  transportation  companies, 
college  and  experiment  station  workers,  etc.  Illustrated.  313 
pages.  5x7  inches.  Cloth $1.00 

Diseases  of  Swine 

By  Dr.  R.  A.  CRAIG,  Professor  of  Veterinary  Medicine  at 
the  Purdue  University.  A  concise,  practical  and  popular  guide 
to  the  prevention  and  treatment  of  the  diseases  of  swine.  With 
the  discussions  on  each  disease  are  given  its  causes,  symptoms, 
treatment  and  means  of  prevention.  Every  part  of  the  book 
impresses  the  reader  with  the  fact  that  its  writer  is  thoroughly 
and  practically  familiar  with  all  the  details  upon  which  he 
treats.  All  technical  and  strictly  scientific  terms  are  avoided, 
so  far  as  feasible,  thus  making  the  work  at  once  available  to 
the  practical  stock  raiser  as  well  as  to  the  teacher  and  student. 
Illustrated.  5x7  inches.  190  pages.  Cloth $0.75 

Spraying  Crops — Why,  When  and  How 

By  CLARENCE  M.  WEED,  D.  Sc.  The  present  fourth  edition 
has  been  rewritten  and  reset  throughout  to  bring  it  thoroughly 
up  to  date,  so  that  it  embodies  the  latest  practical  information 
gleaned  by  fruit  growers  and  experiment  station  workers.  So 
much  new  information  has  come  to  light  since  the  third  edition 
was  published  that  this  is  practically  a  new  book,  needed  by 
those  who  have  utilized  the  earlier  editions,  as  well  as  by  fruit 
growers  and  farmers  generally.  Illustrated.  136  pages.  5x7 
inches.  Cloth. $0.50 


Successful  Fruit  Culture 

By  SAMUEL  T.  MAYNARD.  A  practical  guide  to  the  culti- 
vation and  propagation  of  Fruits,  written  from  the  standpoint 
of  the  practical  fruit  grower  who  is  striving  to  make  his 
business  profitable  by  growing  the  best  fruit  possible  and  at 
the  least  cost  It  is  up-to-date  in  every  particular,  and  covers 
the  entire  practice  of  fruit  culture,  harvesting,  storing,  mar- 
keting, forcing,  best  varieties,  etc.,  etc.  It  deals  with  principles 
first  and  with  the  practice  afterwards,  as  the  foundation,  prin- 
ciples of  plant  growth  and  nourishment  must  always  remain 
the  same,  while  practice  will  vary  according  to  the  fruit 
grower's  immediate  conditions  and  environments.  Illustrated 
265  pages.  5.x  7  inches.  Cloth.  .  .  .  .  .  -  $1.00 

Plums  and  Plum  Culture 

By  F.  A.  WAUGH.  A  complete  manual  for  fruit  growers, 
nurserymen,  farmers  and  gardeners,  on  all  known  varieties 
of  plums  and  their  successful  management.  This  book  mark? 
an  epoch  in  the  horticultural  literature  of  America.  It  is  a 
complete  monograph  of  the  plums  cultivated  in  and  indigenous 
to  North  America.  It  will  be  found  indispensable  to  the 
scientist  seeking  the  most  recent  and  authoritative  informa- 
tion concerning  this  group,  to  the  nurseryman  who  wishes  to 
handle  his  varieties  accurately  and  intelligently,  and  to  the 
cultivator  who  would  like  to  grow  plums  successfully.  Tllu  ;- 
trated.  391  pages.  5x7  inches.  Cloth.  .  .  .  $1.50 

Fruit  Harvesting,  Storing,  Marketing 

By  F.  A.  WAUGH.  A  practical  guide  to  the  picking  '"or 
ing,  shipping  and  marketing  of  fruit.  The  principal  Mibier^ 
covered  are  the  fruit  market,  fruit  picking,  sorting  and  pack- 
ing, the  fruit  storage,  evaporating,  canning,  statistics  of  the 
fruit  trade,  fruit  package  laws,  commission  dealers  and  dea'ing, 
.zold  storage,  etc.,  etc.  No  progressive  fruit  grower  can  nflfo  d 
to  be  without  this  most  valuable  book.  Illustrated.  232  pages. 
5  x  7  inches.  Cloth.  .  .  .  ',•  .  --.,,•  •  $1.00 

Systematic  Pomology 

By  F.  A.  WAUGH,  professor  of  horticulture  and  landscape 
gardening  in  the  Massachusetts  agricultural  college  formerly 
of  the  university  of  Vermont.  This  i-  the  first  book  in  the 
English  language  which  has  ever  made  the  attempt  at  a  com- 
plete and  comprehensive  treatment  of  systematic  pomology. 
It  presents  clearly  and  in  detail  thp  whole  method  bv  which 
fruits  are  studied.'  The  book  is  suitably  illustrated.  288  page=. 
5x7  inches.  Cloth $1.00 


Feeding  Farm  Animals 

By  Professor  THOMAS  SHAW.  This  book  is  intended  alike 
for  the  student  and  the  farmer.  The  author  has  succeeded  in 
giving  in  regular  and  orderly  sequence,  and  in  language  so 
simple  that  a  child  can  understand  it,  the  principles  that  govern 
the  science  and  practice  of  feeding  farm  animals.  Professor 
Shaw  is  certainly  to  be  congratulated  on  the  successful  manner 
in  which  he  has  accomplished  a  most  difficult  task.  His  book 
is  unquestionably  the  most  practical  work  which  has  appeared 
on  the  subject  of  feeding  farm  animals.  Illustrated.  5^  x  8 
inches.  Upward  of  500  pages.  Cloth $2.00 


Profitable  Dairying 

By  C.  L.  Peck.  A  practical  guide  to  successful  dairy  man- 
agement. The  treatment  of  the  entire  subject  is  thoroughly 
practical,  being  principally  a  description  of  the  methods  prac- 
ticed by  the  author.  A  specially  valuable  part  of  this  book 
consists  of  a  minute  description  of  the  far-famed  model  dairy 
farm  of  Rev.  J.  D.  Detrich,  near  Philadelphia,  Pa.  On  this 
farm  of  fifteen  acres,  which  twenty  years  ago  could  not  main 
tain  one  horse  and  two  cows,  there  are  now  kept  twenty-seven 
dairy  cattle,  in  addition  to  two  horses.  All  the  roughage, 
litter,  bedding,  etc.,  necessary  for  these  animals  are  grown  on 
these  fifteen  acres,  more  than  most  farmers  could  accomplish 
on  one  hundred  acres.  Illustrated.  5x7  inches.  200  pages. 
Cloth $0.75 

Practical  Dairy  Bacteriology 

By  Dr.  H.  W.  CONN,  of  Wesleyan  University.  A  complete 
exposition  of  important  facts  concerning  the  relation  of  bacteria 
to  various  problems  related  to  milk.  A  book  for  the  class- 
room, laboratory,  factory  and  farm.  Equally  useful  to  the 
teacher,  student,  factory  man  and  practical  dairyman.  Fully 
illustrated  with  83  original  pictures.  340  pages.  Cloth. 
Sl/2  x  8  inches $1.25 


Modern    Methods  of  Testing    Milk  and  Milk 
Products 

By  L.  L.  VANSLYKE.  This  is  a  clear  and  concise  discussion 
of  the  approved  methods  of  testing  milk  and  milk  products. 
All  the  questions  involved  in  the  various  methods  of  testing 
milk  and  cream  are  handled  with  rare  skill  and  yet  in  so  plain 
a  manner  that  they  can  be  fully  understood  by  all.  The  book 
should  be  in  the  hands  of  every  dairyman,  teacher  or  student. 
Illustrated.  214  pages.  5x7  inches $0.75 


Animal  Breeding 

By  THOMAS  SHAW.  This  book  is  the  most  complete  and 
comprehensive  work  ever  published  on  the  subject  of  which 
it  treats.  It  is  the  first  book  which  has  systematized  the 
subject  of  animal  breeding.  The  leading  laws  which  govern 
this  most  intricate  question  the  author  has  boldly  defined  and 
authoritatively  arranged.  The  chapters  which  he  has  written 
on  the  more  involved  features  of  the  subject,  as  sex  and  the 
relative  influence  of  parents,  should  go  far  toward  setting  at 
rest  the  wildly  speculative  views  cherished  with  reference  tc 
these  questions.  The  striking  originality  in  the  treatment  of 
the  subject  is  no  less  conspicuous  than  the  superb  order  and 
regular  sequence  of  thought  from  the  beginning  to  the  end 
of  the  book.  The  book  is  intended  to  meet  the  needs  of  all 
persons  interested  in  the  breeding  and  rearing  of  live  stock. 
Illustrated.  405  pages.  5x7  inches.  Cloth.  .  .  $1.50 

Forage  Crops  Other  than  Grasses 

By  THOMAS  SHAW.  How  to  cultivate,  harvest  and  use 
them.  Indian  corn,  sorghum,  clover,  leguminous  plants, 
crops  of  the  brassica  genus,  the  cereals,  millet,  field  roots, 
etc.  Intensely  practical  and  reliable.  Illustrated.  287  pages 
5x7  inches.  Cloth.  .  . $1.00 

Soiling  Crops  and  the  Silo 

By  THOMAS  SHAW.  The  growing  and  feeding  of  all  kinds 
of  soiling  crops,  conditions  to  which  they  are  adapted,  their 
plan  in  the  rotation,  etc.  Not  a  line  is  repeated  from  the 
Forage  Crops  book.  Best  methods  of  building  the  silo,  filling 
it  and  feeding  ensilage.  Illustrated.  364  pages.  5x7  inches. 
Cloth.  . $1.50 

The  Study  of  Breeds 

By  THOMAS  SHAW.  Origin,  history,  distribution,  charac- 
teristics, adaptability,  uses  and  standards  of.  excellence  of  all 
pedigreed  breeds  of  cattle,  sheep  and  swine  in  America.  The 
accepted  text  book  in  colleges,  and  the  authority  for  farmers 
and  breeders.  Illustrated.  371  pages.  5x7  inches. 
Cloth.  .-.".. $1.50 

Clovers  and  How  to  Grow  Them 

By  THOMAS  SHAW.  This  is  the  first  book  published  which 
treats  on  the  growth,  cultivation  and  treatment  of  clovers  as 
applicable  to  all  parts  of  the  United  States  and  Canada,  and 
which  takes  up  the  entire  subject  in  a  systematic  way  and 
consecutive  sequence.  The  importance  of  clover  in  the  econ- 
omy of  the  farm  is  so  great  that  an  exhaustive  work  on  this 
subject  will  no  doubt  be  welcomed  by  students  in  agriculture, 
as  well  as  by  all  who  are  interested  in  the  tilling  of  the  soil. 
Illustrated.  5x7  inches.  337  pages.  Cloth.  Net  .  .  .$I.QQ 


Land  Draining 

• 

A  handbook  for  farmers  en  the  principles  and  practice  of 
draining,  by  MANLY  MILES,  giving  the  results  of  his  extended 
experience  in  laying  tile  drains.  The  directions  for  the  laying 
out  and  the  construction  of  tile  drains  will  enable  the  farmer 
to  avoid  the  errors  of  imperfect  construction,  and  the  disap- 
pointment that  must  necessarily  follow.  This  manual  for 
practical  farmers  will  also  be  found  convenient  for  reference 
in  regard  to  many  questions  that  may  arise  in  crop  growing, 
aside  from  the  special  subjects  of  drainage  of  which  it  treats. 
Illustrated.  200  pages.  5x7  inches.  Cloth.  .  .  $1.00 

Barn  Plans  and  Outbuildings 

Two  hundred  and  fifty-seven  illustrations.  A  most  valu- 
able work,  full  of  ideas,  hints,  suggestions,  plans,  etc.,  for  the 
construction  of  barns  and  outbuildings,  by  practical  writers. 
Chapters  are  devoted  to  the  economic  erection  and  use  of 
barns,  grain  barns,  horse  barns,  cattle  barns,  sheep  barns,  corn- 
houses,  smokehouses,  icehouses,  pig  pens,  granaries,  etc. 
There  are  likewise  chapters  on  birdhouses,  doghouses,  tool 
sheds,  ventilators,  roofs  and  roofing,  doors  and  fastenings, 
workshops,  poultry  houses,  manure  sheds,  barnyards,  root 
pits,  etc.  235  pages.  5x7  inches.  Cloth.  .  .  .  $1.00 

Irrigation  Farming 

By  LUTE  WILCOX.  A  handbook  for  the  practical  applica- 
tion of  water  in  the  production  of  crops.  A  complete  treatise 
on  water  supply,  canal  construction,  reservoir  and  ponds, 
pipes  for  irrigation  purposes,  flumes  and  their  structure, 
methods  of  applying  water,  irrigation  of  field  crops,  the 
garden,  the  orchard  and  vineyard,  windmills  and  pumps, 
appliances  and  contrivances.  New  edition,  revised,  enlarged 
and  rewritten.  Profusely  illustrated.  Over  500  pages.  5x7 
inches.  Cloth. $2.00 

Forest  Planting 

By  H.  NICHOLAS  JARCHOW,  LL.D.  A  treatise  on  the  care 
of  woodlands  and  the  restoration  of  the  denuded  timberlands 
on  plains  and  mountains.  The  author  has  fully  described 
those  European  methods  which  have  proved  to  be  most  useful 
in  maintaining  the  superb  forests  of  the  old  world.  This 
experience  has  been  adapted  to  the  different  climates  and  trees 
of  America,  full  instructions  being  given  for  forest  planting 
of  our  various  kinds  of  soil  and  subsoil,  whether  on  mountain 
or  valley.  Illustrated.  250  pages.  5x7  inches.  Cloth.  $1.50 


The  Nut  Culturist 

By  ANDREW  S.  FULLER.  A  treatise  on  the  propagation, 
planting  and  cultivation  of  nut-bearing  trees  and  shrubs 
adapted  to  the  climate  of  the  United  States,  with  the  scien- 
tific and  common  names  of  the  fruits  known  in  commerce  as 
edible  or  otherwise  useful  nuts.  Intended  to  aid  the  farmer 
to  increase  his  income  without  adding  to  his  expenses  or 
labor.  Cloth.  I2mo.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  $1.50 

Cranberry  Culture 

By  JOSEPH  J.  WHITE.  Contents:  Natural  history,  history 
of  cultivation,  choice  of  location,  preparing  the  ground,  plant- 
ing the  vines,  management  of  meadows,  flooding,  enemies 
and  difficulties  overcome,  picking,  keeping,  profit  and  loss. 
Illustrated.  132  pages.  5x7  inches.  Cloth.  .  .  $1.00 

Ornamental  Gardening  for  Americans 

By  ELIAS  A.  LONG,  landscape  architect.  A  treatise  on 
beautifying  homes,  rural  districts  and  cemeteries.  A  plain 
and  practical  work  with  numerous  illustrations  and  instruc- 
tions so  plain  that  they  may  be  readily  followed.  Illustrated. 
390  pages.  5x7  inches.  Cloth.  .  .  .  .  .  $1.50 

Grape  Culturist 

By  A.  S.  FULLER.  This  is  one  of  the  very  best  of  works 
on  the  culture  of  the  hardy  grapes,  with  full  directions  for 
all  departments  of  propagation,  culture,  etc.,  with  150  excellent 
engravings,  illustrating  planting,  training,  grafting,  etc. 
282  pages.  5x7  inches.  Cloth $1.50 

Gardening  for  Young  and  Old 

By  JOSEPH  HARRIS.  A  work  intended  to  interest  farmers' 
boys  in  farm  gardening,  which  means  a  better  and  more  profit- 
able form  of  agriculture.  The  teachings  are  given  in  the 
familiar  manner  so  well  known  in  the  author's  "Walks  and 
Talks  on  the  Farm."  Illustrated.  191  pages..  5  x  7  inches. 
Cloth.  V $1-00 

Money  in  the  Garden 

By  P  T.  QUINN.  The  author  gives  in  a  plain,  practical 
style  instructions  on  three  distinct,  although  closely  connected, 
branches  of  gardening— the  kitchen  garden,  market  garden  and 
field  culture,  from  successful  practical  exp_erience  for  a  term 
of  years.  Illustrated.  268  pages.  5x7  inches.  Cloth.  $i-oo 


Greenhouse  Construction 

By  PROF.  L.  R.  TAFT.  A  complete  treatise  on  greenhouse 
structures  and  arrangements  of  the  various  forms  and  styles 
of  plant  houses  for  professional  florists  as  well  as  amateurs. 
All  the  best  and  most  approved  structures  are  so  fully  and 
clearly  described  that  any  one  who  desires  to  build  a  green- 
house will  have  no  difficulty  in  determining  the  kind  best 
suited  to  his  purpose.  The  modern  and  most  successful  meth- 
ods of  heating  and  ventilating  are  fully  treated  upon.  Special 
chapters  are  devoted  to  houses  used  for  the  growing  of  one 
kind  of  plants  exclusively.  The  construction  of  hotbeds  and 
frames  receives  appropriate  attention.  Over  100  excellent 
illustrations,  especially  engraved  for  this  work,  make  every 
point  clear  to  the  reader  and  add  considerably  to  the  artistic 
appearance  of  the  book.  210  pages.  5x7  inches.  Cloth,  $1.50 

Greenhouse  Management 

By  L.  R.  TAFT.  This  book  forms  an  almost  indispensable 
companion  volume  to  Greenhouse  Construction.  In  it  the 
author  gives  the  results  of  his  many  years'  experience,  together 
with  that  of  the  most  successful  florists  and  gardeners,  in  the 
management  of  growing  plants  under  glass.  So  minute  and 
practical  are  the  various  systems  and  methods  of  growing 
and  forcing  roses,  violets,  carnations,  and  all  the  most  impor- 
tant florists'  plants,  as  well  as  fruits  and  vegetables  described, 
that  by  a  careful  study  of  this  work  and  the  following  of  its 
teachings,  failure  is  almost  impossible.  Illustrated.  382  pages. 
5x7  inches.  Cloth $1.50 

Fungi  and  Fungicides 

By  PROF.  CLARENCE  M.  WEED.  A  practical  manual  con- 
cerning the  fungous  diseases  of  cultivated  plants  and  the 
means  of  preventing  their  ravages.  The  author  has  endeav- 
ored to  give  such  a  concise  account  of  the  most  important 
facts  relating  to  these  as  will  enable  the  cultivator  to  combat 
them  intelligently.  90  illustrations.  222  pages.  5x7  inches. 
Paper,  50  cents;  cloth $1.00 

Mushrooms.     How  to  Grow  Them 

By  WILLIAM  FALCONER.  This  is  the  most  practical  work 
on  the  subject  ever  written,  and  the  only  book  on  growing 
mushrooms  published  in  America.  The  author  describes  how 
he  grows  mushrooms,  and  how  they  are  grown  for  profit  by 
the  leading  market  gardeners,  and  for  home  use  by  the  most 
successful  private  growers.  Engravings  drawn  from  nature 
expressly  for  this  work.  170  pages.  5x7  inches.  Cloth.  $i.OQ 


The  New  Egg  Farm 

By  H.  H.  STODDARD.  A  practical,  reliable  manual  on 
producing  eggs  and  poultry  for  market  as  a  profitable  business 
enterprise,  either  by  itself  or  connected  with  other  branches 
of  agriculture.  It  tells  all  about  how  to  feed  and  manage, 
how  to  breed  and  select,  incubators  and  brooders,  its  labor- 
saving  devices,  etc.,  etc.  Illustrated.  331  pages.  5x7  inches. 
Cloth.  . $1.00 

Poultry  Feeding  and  Fattening 

Compiled  by  G.  B.  FISKE.  A  handbook  for  poultry  keep- 
ers on  the  standard  and  improved  methods  of  feeding  and 
marketing  all  kinds  of  poultry.  The  subject  of  feeding  and 
fattening  poultry  is  prepared  largely  from  the  side  of  the 
best  practice  and  experience  here  and  abroad,  although  the 
underlying  science  of  feeding  is  explained  as  fully  as  needful. 
The  subject  covers  all  branches,  including  chickens,  broilers, 
capons,  turkeys  and  waterfowl ;  how  to  feed  under  various 
conditions  and  for  different  purposes.  The  whole  subject  of 
capons  and  caponizing  is  treated  in  detail.  A  great  mass  of 
practical  information  and  experience  not  readily  obtainable 
elsewhere  is  given  with  full  and  explicit  directions  for  fatten- 
ing and  preparing  for  market.  This  book  will  meet  the  needs 
of  amateurs  as  well  as  commercial  poultry  raisers.  Profusely 
illustrated.  160  pages.  5x71-2  inches.  Cloth.  .  $0.50 

Poultry  Architecture 

Compiled  by  G.  B.  FISKE.  A  treatise  on  poultry  buildings 
of  all  grades,  styles  and  classes,  and  their  proper  location, 
coops,  additions  and  special  construction;  all  practical  in  de- 
sign, and  reasonable  in  cost.  Over  100  illustrations.  125  pages. 
5x7  inches.  Cloth $0.50 

Poultry  Appliances  and   Handicraft 

Compiled  by  G.  B.  FISKE.  Illustrated  descriptions  of  a 
great  variety  and  styles  of  the  best  homemade  nests,  roosts, 
windows,  ventilators,  incubators  and  brooders,  feeding  and 
watering  appliances,  etc.,  etc.  Over  100  illustrations.  Over 
125  pages.  5x7  inches.  Cloth.  .  .  .  .  .  $0.50 

Turkeys  and  How  to  Grow  Them 

Edited  by  HERBERT  MYRICK.  A  treatise  on  the  natural 
histor)'  and  origin  of  the  name  of  turkeys ;  the  various  breeds, 
the  best  methods  to  insure  success  in  the  business  of  turkey 
growing.  With  essays  from  practical  turkey  growers  in 
different  parts  of  the  United  States  and  Canada.  Copiously 
illustrated.  154  pages.  5x7  inches.  Cloth.  .  .  $1.00 


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UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


